Cellulase compositions having improved thermostability and synergy

ABSTRACT

A variant Cel5a endoglucanase has increased thermostability, increased enzymatic activity and/or increased expression in a host, relative to wild type Cel5a. The improved variant Cel5a endoglucanase may be used to hydrolyze more cellulose at a higher temperature for a more efficient and cost-effective production of biofuels as compared to wild type Cel5a. A variant Cel5a endoglucanase is combined with variant Cel6a and variant Cel7a cellobiohydrolases resulting in more effective hydrolysis of cellulose.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION(S)

The present application claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/944,471 filed on Feb. 25, 2014, and is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/247,221 filed on Apr. 7, 2014, which claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/809,144 filed on Apr. 5, 2013 and U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/822,489 filed on May 13, 2013, the entire contents of all of which are incorporated herein by reference.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with government support under Grant number W911NF-09-D-0001 awarded by the US Army and Grant numbers N00244-09-1-0011 and N00244-09-1-0082 awarded by the US Navy. The government has certain rights in the invention.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

The present application contains a Sequence Listing which has been submitted in ASCII format via EFS-Web and is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. The Sequence Listing submitted herewith is a text file that was created on Oct. 9, 2014 and is 7,529 bytes in size.

BACKGROUND

The primary component of plant cell walls, cellulose, is not only the most abundant biopolymer, but it is also a completely renewable resource. In order to expose cellulose, the lignocellulosic material made up of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, often requires a harsh chemical or temperature-based pretreatment to remove the hemicellulose and lignin. The cellulose is subsequently digested with mixtures of expensive cellulose-digesting enzymes, called cellulases. Digestion (by hydrolysis) of the cellulose by cellulases produces glucose which can be fermented into liquid fuel.

At this time, for the digestion of cellulose to be economically feasible, the cellulase production costs must decrease. For complete cellulose digestion, a mixture of wild type fungal cellulases is known to require at least three different activities: endoglucanase, cellobiohydrolase I, and cellobiohydrolase II, where each type of activity may be carried out by more than one enzyme. The filamentous fungus, Hypocrea jecorina (Trichoderma reesei) digests cellulose using the least number of cellulase enzymes, and the majority of the digestion is attributed to four enzymes: Cel7a, Cel6a, Cel5a, and Ce17B. As such, an enzymatic mixture made using these H. jecorina cellulases requires fewer components for complete digestion.

SUMMARY

In some embodiments of the present invention, a composition includes a variant Cel5a endoglucanase as disclosed herein having a T₅₀ above the T₅₀ of wild type Cel5a endoglucanase and increased enzymatic activity relative to wild type Cel5a endoglucanase, the composition also includes a variant Cel6a cellobiohydrolase and/or a variant Cel7a cellobiohydrolase.

In some embodiments of the present invention, the variant Cel5a endoglucanase having a T₅₀ above a T₅₀ of wild type Cel5a endoglucanase and increased enzymatic activity includes a single point mutation in the Cel5a amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N153D, N155E, T156E, G189S, F191V, T233V, G239E, V265T, D271Y, G293A, S309W/L, S318P/Q/E, and combinations thereof.

In some embodiments of the present invention, the variant Cel5a endoglucanase having a T₅₀ above a T₅₀ of wild type Cel5a endoglucanase and increased enzymatic activity includes a combination of point mutations in the Cel5a amino acid sequence. In some embodiments, for example, the combination of point mutations may include any of the following combinations:

G189A, F191V, G239D, S242A, V265T, D271Y, S318P/E, and S322A;

E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309L, and S318P;

E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309W, and S318P;

E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309L, and S318E;

E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309W, and S318E; or

E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, F191V, T233V, G239E, V265T, D271Y, G293A, S309W, and S318P.

In some embodiments of the present invention, a method of hydrolyzing cellulose includes hydrolyzing the cellulose with the composition including a variant Cel5a endoglucanase composition having a T₅₀ above a T₅₀ of wild type Cel5a endoglucanase and increased enzymatic activity relative to wild type, the composition also including a variant Cel6a cellobiohydrolase and/or a variant Cel7a cellobiohydrolase.

In some embodiments of the present invention, a composition includes a variant Cel5a endoglucanase having a T₅₀ above the T₅₀ of wild type Cel5a endoglucanase, the composition including a point mutation selected from D13E, T18P, E53D, T57N, N76P, S79P/Q, T80E, I82M, V101I, S133R, S139P, N153D, N155E/Q, T156E, G189S/A/E, F191V, K219Q/A, T233V, G239E/N/D, V265T, D271Y/F, Y278F, G293A, S309W/F/L, S318P/Q/E, or any combination thereof.

In some embodiments of the present invention, a composition includes a variant Cel5a endoglucanase having increased protein expression in a host organism compared to wild type Cel5a, the composition including a point mutation selected from D13E, T18P, G64A, N76P, S79P/Q/E, T80E/Q, I82L/M, V101I/L, A122E, S133R, S139P, N155E/Q, T156E, G189S/A/E/K, K219Q/A, G239E/N/D, V265T, D271Y/F, Y278F, G293A, S309W/F/L, or S318P/Q/E.

In some embodiments of the present invention, a composition includes a variant Cel5a endoglucanase having a T₅₀ above the T₅₀ of wild type Cel5a endoglucanase, increased enzymatic activity relative to wild type Cel5a endoglucanase, and increased protein expression in a host organism relative to wild type Cel5a, the variant Cel5a endoglucanase having a combination of mutations which may include any of the following combinations:

G189A, F191V, G239D, S242A, V265T, D271Y, S318P/E, and S322A;

E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309L, and S318P;

E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309W, and S318P;

E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309L, and S318E;

E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309W, and S318E; or

E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, F191V, T233V, G239E, V265T, D271Y, G293A, S309W, and S318P.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The patent or application file contains at least one drawing executed in color. Copies of this patent or patent application publication with color drawings will be provided by the Office upon request and payment of the necessary fee.

These and other features and advantages of the present invention will be better understood by reference to the following detailed description when considered in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.

FIG. 1 is a graph measuring thermostability and activity in wild type (WT) and the indicated Cel5a point mutant proteins following a reducing end (Park-Johnson) assay as described herein, with bovine serum albumin (BSA) used as a control, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 2 is a graph corresponding to thermostability and activity of FIG. 1 showing the amount of activity versus an increase in temperature of the wild type (green) and the indicated Cel5a mutants: D13E (pink circles), E53D (dark blue diamonds), T57N (light blue triangles), G189A (yellow triangles), and G293A (orange squares), where the dashed line indicates the point at which 50% of the maximal protein activity remains (T₅₀), according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 3A is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a D13E mutant of FIG. 2, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (green) and the point mutant (blue) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 3B is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a E53D mutant of FIG. 2, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (green) and the point mutant (blue) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 3C is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a T57N mutant of FIG. 2, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (green) and the point mutant (blue) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 3D is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a G189A mutant of FIG. 2, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (green) and the point mutant (blue) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 3E is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a G293A mutant of FIG. 2, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (green) and the point mutant (blue) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 3F is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a I82L mutant of FIG. 2, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (green) and the point mutant (blue) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 3G is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a V101L mutant of FIG. 2, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (green) and the point mutant (blue) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 4 is a graph showing the cellulase activity of the indicated Cel5a point mutants versus the ΔT₅₀ (compared to wild type Cel5a), where WT (green circle), D13E (pink circle), E53D (dark blue diamond), T57N (light blue triangle), G189A (yellow triangle), and G293A (orange square) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 5 is a graph measuring thermostability and activity in wild type (WT) and the indicated core repacking Cel5a point mutant proteins following a reducing end (Park-Johnson) assay as described herein, with bovine serum albumin (BSA) used as a control, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 6A is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a I82L mutant of FIG. 5, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (green) and the point mutant (yellow) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 6B is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a V101I mutant of FIG. 5, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (green) and the point mutant (yellow) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 7 is a graph measuring thermostability and activity in wild type (WT) and the indicated helix dipole Cel5a point mutant proteins following a reducing end (Park-Johnson) assay as described herein, with bovine serum albumin (BSA) used as a control, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 8A is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a S79Q mutant of FIG. 7, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (green) and the point mutant (yellow) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 8B is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a T80E mutant of FIG. 7, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (green) and the point mutant (yellow) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 8C is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a S133R mutant of FIG. 7, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (green) and the point mutant (yellow) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 8D is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a N155E mutant of FIG. 7, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (green) and the point mutant (yellow) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 8E is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a N155Q mutant of FIG. 7, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (green) and the point mutant (yellow) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 8F is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a T156E mutant of FIG. 7, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (green) and the point mutant (yellow) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 8G is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a G239E mutant of FIG. 7, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (green) and the point mutant (yellow) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 8H is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a Y278F mutant of FIG. 7, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (green) and the point mutant (yellow) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 8I is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a S318E mutant of FIG. 7, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (green) and the point mutant (yellow) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 8J is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a S318Q mutant of FIG. 7, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (green) and the point mutant (yellow) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 8K is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a S79E mutant of FIG. 7, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (green) and the point mutant (yellow) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 8L is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a T80Q mutant of FIG. 7, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (green) and the point mutant (yellow) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 8M is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a A122E mutant of FIG. 7, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (green) and the point mutant (yellow) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 8N is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a G239Q mutant of FIG. 7, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (green) and the point mutant (yellow) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 9A is a graph measuring the reducing ends equivalents (Park-Johnson assay) for Cel5a WT (green circles) and Helix combo mutant (blue triangles) proteins over a range of temperatures as indicated, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 9B is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a WT and Helix combo mutant of FIG. 9A, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (green circles) and the Helix combo mutant (blue triangles) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 10A is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a WT and core repacking point mutations having a ΔT₅₀>0.5° C., where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (green circles) and core repacking mutants (blue triangles) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 10B is a graph showing the cellulase activity of the indicated core repacking Cel5a point mutants versus the ΔT₅₀ (compared to wild type Cel5a), where WT (green circle) and the indicated core repacking mutants (yellow diamonds) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 10C is a graph showing the cellulase activity of the indicated helix dipole Cel5a point mutants versus the ΔT₅₀ (compared to wild type Cel5a), where WT (green circle) and the indicated helix dipole mutants (blue diamonds) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 11A is a graph measuring thermostability and activity in wild type (WT) and the indicated Cel5a point mutant proteins selected from a FoldX screen as described herein, with bovine serum albumin (BSA) used as a control, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 11B is a graph measuring thermostability and activity in wild type (WT) and the indicated Cel5a point mutant proteins selected from a Triad screen as described herein, with bovine serum albumin (BSA) used as a control, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 12A is a graph corresponding to thermostability and activity of FIG. 11A showing the amount of activity versus an increase in temperature of the wild type (green) and the indicated FoldX Cel5a mutants: N153D (pink triangles), D271F (orange squares), D271Y (yellow triangles), S309L (blue diamonds), and S319P (green squares), where the dashed line indicates the point at which 50% of the maximal protein activity persists (T₅₀), according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 12B is a graph corresponding to thermostability and activity of FIG. 11B showing the amount of activity versus an increase in temperature of the wild type (green) and the indicated Triad Cel5a mutants: K219A (orange squares), K219Q (yellow triangles), S309F (blue diamonds), and S309L (pink triangles), where the dashed line indicates the point at which 50% of the maximal protein activity persists (T₅₀), according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 13A is a graph showing the cellulase activity of the indicated FoldX Cel5a point mutants versus the ΔT₅₀ (compared to wild type Cel5a), as indicated in FIG. 12A, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 13B is a graph showing the cellulase activity of the indicated Triad Cel5a point mutants versus the ΔT₅₀ (compared to wild type Cel5a), as indicated in FIG. 12B, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 14A is a graph measuring thermostability and activity in wild type (WT) and the indicated Glycine to Xaa Cel5a point mutant proteins following a reducing end (Park-Johnson) assay as described herein, with bovine serum albumin (BSA) used as a control, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 14B is a graph measuring thermostability and activity in wild type (WT) and the indicated Xaa to Proline Cel5a point mutant proteins following a reducing end (Park-Johnson) assay as described herein, with bovine serum albumin (BSA) used as a control, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 15A is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a WT and Gly to Xaa point mutations, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (grey circles) and G189S (orange squares), G239N (yellow triangles), and G293A (blue diamonds) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 15B is a T₅₀ plot for the Cel5a WT and Xaa to Proline point mutations, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-80° C., where WT (grey circles) and T18P (orange squares), N76P (yellow triangles), and S139P (blue diamonds) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 16A is a graph showing the Δ cellulase activity (compared to wild type Cel5a) of the indicated Gly to Xaa Cel5a point mutants versus the ΔT₅₀ (compared to wild type Cel5a), as indicated in FIG. 15A, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 16B is a graph showing the Δ cellulase activity (compared to wild type Cel5a) of the indicated Xaa to Proline Cel5a point mutants versus the ΔT₅₀ (compared to wild type Cel5a), as indicated in FIG. 15B, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 17 is a graph showing the Δ thermostability (compared to wild type Cel5a) of the indicated Cel5a point mutants, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 18A is a graph showing the amount of cellulase activity versus hydrolysis temperature for WT (HjCel5a) (squares) and 110F Cel5a combination mutant (triangles), as described herein, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 18B is a graph showing the amount of cellulase activity over 60 hours for WT (HjCel5a)(squares) and 110F Cel5a combination mutant (triangles) at 60° C. and 70° C. as indicated, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 19A is a graph of thermostability and activity in wild type (WT) and the indicated Cel5a combination mutant proteins following a reducing end (Park-Johnson) assay as described herein, with bovine serum albumin (BSA) used as a control, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 19B is a graph of the reducing ends equivalents (Park-Johnson assay) for Cel5a WT (green circles), 9-point mutant (blue squares), and 13-point mutant (yellow squares) proteins over a range of temperatures as indicated, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 19C is a T₅₀ plot for the 9-, 13-, and 20-point mutants of FIG. 19A, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-100° C., where WT (green circles), 9-point mutant (blue squares), 13-point mutant (yellow squares), and 20-point mutant (purple diamonds) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 19D is a graph showing the Δ cellulase activity (compared to wild type Cel5a) of the indicated 9-point mutant versus the ΔT₅₀ (compared to wild type Cel5a) at 60° C. from a single point assay as described herein, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 19E is a graph showing the amount of cellulase activity of WT (green circles) and the indicated 9-point mutant (blue circles) at 60° C., according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 19F is a graph showing the amount of cellulase activity of WT (green circles) and the indicated 9-point mutant (blue circles) at 70° C., according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 20A is a T₅₀ plot for the s13pt1 and s13pt2 combination mutants, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-100° C., where WT (green circles), 9-point mutant (blue squares), s18pt1 mutant (red triangles), and s13pt2 mutant (yellow circles) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 20B is a T₅₀ plot for the s13pt3 and s13pt4 combination mutants, where the fraction active reflects the amount of the total protein that is active after a 10 minute heat treatment from 60-100° C., where WT (green circles), 9-point mutant (blue squares), s18pt3 mutant (turquoise diamonds), and s13pt4 mutant (purple squares) are shown, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 20C is a graph showing the Δ cellulase activity (compared to wild type Cel5a) of the indicated combination mutant versus the ΔT₅₀ (compared to wild type Cel5a) at 60° C. from FIGS. 20A, 20B, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 20D is a graph showing the amount of cellulase activity versus hydrolysis temperature for WT (green circles), s13pt2 mutant (yellow circles), and s13pt4 mutant (purple squares) as described herein, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 21A is a graph showing the amount of cellulase activity over 60 hours for WT (green circles), 9-point mutant (blue squares), s13pt2 mutant (yellow circles), and s13pt4 mutant (purple squares) at 60° C., according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 21B is a graph showing the amount of cellulase activity over 60 hours for WT (green circles), 9-point mutant (blue squares), s13pt2 mutant (yellow circles), and s13pt4 mutant (purple squares) at 70° C., according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 21C is a graph showing the amount of cellulase activity over 60 hours for WT (green circles) and s13pt2 mutant (yellow circles) at 60° C. and/or 70° C., 75° C., and 78° C. as indicated, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 21D is a graph showing the amount of cellulase activity over 60 hours for WT (green circles) and s13pt4 mutant (purple squares) at 60° C. and/or 70° C., 75° C., and 78° C. as indicated, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 22A is a graph showing the amount of cellulase activity versus hydrolysis temperature for WT (HjCel5a) (squares) and OptCel5a combination mutant (triangles) as described herein, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 22B is a graph showing the amount of cellulase activity over 60 hours for WT (HjCel5a)(squares) and 110F Cel5a combination mutant (triangles) at 60° C. (closed) and 70° C. (open) as indicated, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 23A is a synergy diagram for cellulase activity showing the contributions of WT Cel5a, Cel6a, and Cel7a when used as a mixture, as described herein, where each vertex represents 100% concentration of an individual cellulase, each edge represents a mixture of two cellulases and each edge indicates the concentration of the labeled cellulase ranging from 0% to 100% of the total mixture, and the interior of the triangle is a mixture of all three cellulases, with red representing maximum activity and blue representing minimum activity, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 23B is a synergy diagram for cellulase activity showing the contributions of OptCel5a, a variant Cel6a, and a variant Cel7a when used as a mixture, as described herein, where each vertex represents 100% concentration of an individual cellulase and each edge represents a mixture of two cellulases and indicates the concentration of the labeled cellulase ranging from 0% to 100% of the total mixture, and the interior of the triangle is a mixture of all three cellulases, with red representing maximum activity and blue representing minimum activity, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 23C is a graph showing the absolute cellulase activity for WT Cel5a, Cel6a, and Cel7a as indicated and as measured from the synergy reaction represented in FIG. 23A, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 23D is a graph showing the absolute cellulase activity for OptCel5a, a variant Cel6a, and a variant Cel7a as indicated and as measured from the synergy reaction represented in FIG. 23B, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 24A is a graph showing the amount of cellulase activity over 60 hours for WT (HjCel5a)(squares) and T-PRIMED Cel5a combination mutant (triangles) at 60° C. (closed) and 70° C. (open) as indicated, on 1% w/v Avicel, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 24B is a graph showing the amount of cellulase activity over 60 hours for WT (HjCel5a)(squares) and T-PRIMED Cel5a combination mutant (triangles) at 60° C. (closed) and 70° C. (open) as indicated, on 3% w/v Avicel, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 24C is a graph showing the amount of cellulase activity over 60 hours for WT (HjCel5a)(squares) and T-PRIMED Cel5a combination mutant (triangles) at 60° C. (closed) and 70° C. (open) as indicated, on 5% w/v Avicel, according to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 24D is a graph showing the amount of cellulase activity for WT (light grey) and T-PRIMED Cel5a (dark grey) at 60° C. and 70° C. on both milled corn stover and dilute-acid treated rice straw as indicated, according to embodiments of the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Some embodiments of the present invention include variants of the endoglucanase Cel5a having thermostability at higher temperatures compared to wild type (WT) Cel5a. As used herein, “thermostability” refers to the stability and resistance of the enzyme protein (e.g., Cel5a protein) in response to changes in temperature. In this disclosure, an increase in thermostability refers to an increase in the range of higher temperatures at which the enzyme protein is stable and does not degrade compared to wild type. As disclosed herein, a T₅₀ assay is used to determine the thermostability of a protein. Specifically, a T₅₀ assay determines the temperature at which half of the maximal protein activity remains. In this way, for example, the Cel5a variants disclosed herein having increased thermostability do not degrade at some of the higher temperatures at which WT Cel5a degrades. For example, an increase in thermostability is any increase in the T₅₀ of a Cel5a variant protein above that of WT Cel5a protein, resulting in a positive ΔT₅₀ compared to WT. For example, any increase in a Cel5a variant T₅₀ may be beneficial. In some embodiments, a Cel5a variant T₅₀ may be up to about 17° C. higher than wild type Cel5a. As such, by increasing the thermostability of the Cel5a enzyme, the reaction temperature for cellulose digestion may be increased. Increasing the reaction temperature for cellulose digestion is useful because isolating cellulose from the lignocellulosic material requires heating at about 200° C. As such, being able to perform the subsequent cellulose hydrolysis step at temperatures higher than the current industry standard of about 50° C. may reduce the amount of energy necessary to cool the pretreated cellulose substrate. (Sun et al. 2002, Bioresource Technol., 83:1-11, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference.) This reduction in energy may result in a reduction in the overall production cost.

Some embodiments of the present invention include Cel5a variants having both increased thermostability and increased enzymatic activity compared to wild type (WT) Cel5a. As such, these Cel5a variants are able to digest cellulose at a higher temperature than wild type and digest more cellulose than wild type. For example, as disclosed herein, increased amounts of cellulase activity compared to WT Cel5a range from about 0.1 to about 100 μM more cellobiose equivalents at 60° C., and from about 0.1 to about 1 mM (1,000 μM) more cellobiose equivalents at 70° C.

Some embodiments of the present invention include Cel5a variants having increased expression compared to wild type. As such, more Cel5a protein may be isolated without an increase in the culture processing of the expression host organism. Some embodiments of the present invention include Cel5a variants having increased thermostability, increased activity, and increased expression compared to wild type Cel5a.

Abbreviations for amino acids are used throughout this disclosure and follow the standard nomenclature known in the art. Alanine is Ala or A; Arginine is Arg or R; Asparagine is Asn or N; Aspartic Acid is Asp or D; Cysteine is Cys or C; Glutamic acid is Glu or E; Glutamine is Gln or Q; Glycine is Gly or G; Histidine is His or H; Isoleucine is Ile or I; Leucine is Leu or L; Lysine is Lys or K; Methionine is Met or M; Phenylalanine is Phe or F; Proline is Pro or P; Serine is Ser or S; Threonine is Thr or T; Tryptophan is Trp or W; Tyrosine is Tyr or Y; and Valine is Val or V.

For point mutations, amino acid substitutions are shown, for example, as E53D, where the wild type glutamic acid (E) at position 53 is changed to aspartic acid (D). Also, S318P/Q/E denotes that the wild type serine (S) at position 318 may be changed to proline (P), glutamine (Q), or glutamic acid (E).

As used herein the terms “variant” and “mutant” are used interchangeably to refer to a protein having a change in the wild type protein sequence.

Expression of HjCel5a

The Cel5a variants of the present invention have at least one point mutation in the amino acid sequence of wild type Hypocrea jecorina (Trichoderma reesei) Cel5a. Wild type HjCel5a is encoded by the DNA sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1. As used herein, Cel5a and HjCel5a are used interchangeably to refer to the endoglucanase encoded by SEQ ID NO: 1 or an indicated variant thereof.

The HjCel5a variant and wild type proteins as disclosed herein are transformed and expressed in the yeast host Saccharomyces cerevisiae. However, the Cel5a variants of the present invention and the Cel6a and Cel7a variants may be expressed in any suitable host organism. Non-limiting examples of host organisms include Trichoderma, Saccharomyces, Pichia and Aspergillus. Any industrial expression system with known culturing methodologies may be used. Examples of known host organisms are described in Murray P, et al. 2004. Protein Expr Purif, 38:248-257; Qin et al. 2008, Protein Expr Purif 58:162-167; Celik et al., 2012, Biotechnol. Adv., 30:1108-1118; and Su et al., 2012, Adv. Appl. Microbiol., 81:1-61, the entire contents of all of which are herein incorporated by reference.

All expression plasmids encoding enzyme proteins disclosed herein, including Cel5a, Cel6a, and/or Cel7a may be constructed by any appropriate methods known in the art. Methods for constructing the various Cel5a, Cel6a, and Cel7a plasmids are disclosed in the Examples, but the present invention is not limited by the particular plasmid sequences disclosed herein, excluding the indicated Cel5a, Cel6a and Cel7a variant sequences.

Cel5a Thermostability Mutants

Thermostability of Cel5a mutants was assayed using a T₅₀ or T_(A50) assay as described in Examples 1 and 4, respectively. The T₅₀ and T_(A50) assays determine the temperature at which half of the maximal protein activity remains, and is used to assay thermostability of a protein. As used herein, the temperatures determined by a T₅₀ or T_(A50) assay approximate each other, and are therefore used interchangeably. In some embodiments of the present invention, a Cel5a mutant endoglucanase having a T₅₀ above the T₅₀ of wild type Cel5a endoglucanase includes a point mutation in the wild type amino acid sequence of Cel5a. The Cel5a amino acid point mutations conferring an increased T₅₀ over wild type Cel5a include: D13E, T18P, E53D, T57N, N76P, S79P/Q, T80E, I82M, V101I, S133R, S139P, N153D, N155E/Q, T156E, G189S/A/E, F191V, K219Q/A, T233V, G239E/N/D, V265T, D271Y/F, Y278F, G293A, S309W/F/L, S318P/Q/E, or any combination thereof.

Cel5a combination mutants of the listed point mutations above also confer increased thermostability compared to wild type Cel5a. In some embodiments a set of point mutations in Cel5a having increased thermostability over wild type Cel5a include one of the following sets:

N76P and S139P;

T57N, N76P, S139P, and N155E;

T57N, N76P, S139P, N155E, and G189S;

T57N, N76P, S139P, N155E, and K219Q;

T57N, N76P, S139P, N155E, and G239N;

T57N, N76P, S139P, N155E, and D271F;

T57N, N76P, S139P, N155E, D271F, and Y278F;

T57N, N76P, S139P, N155E, G189S, and K219Q;

T57N, N76P, S139P, N155E, G189S, and G239N;

T57N, N76P, S139P, N155E, G189S, K219Q, and G239N;

T57N, N76P, S139P, N155E, G189S, D271F, and Y278F;

T57N, N76P, S139P, N155E, G189S, D271F, Y278F, and G293A;

T57N, N76P, T80E; S139P, N155E, G189S, D271F, Y278F, and G293A;

T57N, N76P, S139P, N155E, G189S, K219Q, G239N, D271F, Y278F, and G293A;

T57N, N76P, T80E, S139P, N155E, G189S, K219Q, G239N, D271F, Y278F, and G293A;

T57N, N76P, T80E, S139P, N155E, G189S, K219Q, G239N, D271F, Y278F, G293A, and S318P;

T57N, N76P, T80E, S139P, N155E, G189S, K219Q, G239N, D271F, Y278F, G293A, S309F, and S318P;

T80E, S133R, N155E, G239E, Y278F, and S318Q;

E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309L, and S318P;

E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309W, and S318P;

E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309L, and S318E;

E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309W, and S318E;

G189A, F191V, G239D, S242A, V265T, D271Y, S318P/E, and S322A; or

E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, F191V, T233V, G239E, V265T, D271Y, G293A, S309W, and S318P.

These point mutations and sets of point mutations are characterized for thermostability as disclosed, for example, in Examples 1-4 and FIGS. 1, 5, 7, 9B, 11A, 11B, 14A, 14B, 17, and 19A.

Cel5a Mutants Having Increased Thermostability and Activity

The Cel5a mutants having increased thermostability were assayed for enzymatic activity using, for example, a cellulase activity assay measuring cellobiose digestion, as described in Examples 1 and 6. The amino acid point mutations in Cel5a that confer both an increased T₅₀ and increased enzymatic activity compared to wild type Cel5a include: E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N153D, N155E, T156E, G189S, F191V, T233V, G239E, V265T, D271Y, G293A, S309W/L, or S318P/Q/E. These point mutations are characterized for thermostability and activity, for example, in Examples 1-4, Tables I-IV, and FIGS. 4, 10B, 10C, 16A, 16B, and 17.

In some embodiments of the present invention, combinations of point mutations confer increased thermostability and activity. In some embodiments, a Cel5a mutant endoglucanase having both increased thermostability and activity has a combination of point mutations in the Cel5a amino acid sequence including one of the following sets of mutations:

G189A, F191V, G239D, S242A, V265T, D271Y, S318P/E, and S322A;

E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309L, and S318P;

E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309W, and S318P;

E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309L, and S318E;

E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309W, and S318E; or

E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, F191V, T233V, G239E, V265T, D271Y, G293A, S309W, and S318P.

The above combination mutants are characterized for thermostability and activity, for example, in Examples 4-6, Tables V and VI, and FIGS. 18A, 18B, 20C, 20D, 21C, 21D, 22A, and 22B.

In some embodiments of the present invention, a Cel5a mutant endoglucanase has increased thermostability (as measured by a T₅₀ assay) up to 17° C. above the T₅₀ of wild type Cel5a and retains the same activity at least at 60° C.

In some embodiments, a Cel5a mutant endoglucanase having increased thermostability and activity relative to wild type Cel5a is combined with other cellulases having improved thermostability and activity. This combination of cellulases provides an improved cellulase cocktail composition for a more efficient and cost-effective hydrolysis of cellulose. Examples of other cellulases include the cellobiohydrolases, Cel6a and Cel7a, as disclosed herein, for example, in Example 7 and FIGS. 23A-23D and 24A-24D.

Cel5a Mutants Having Increased Expression

Some Cel5a mutants confer an increase in expression as compared to wild type Cel5a. As used herein, “protein expression” refers to the amount of protein produced in a host organism. Cel5a is expressed into the medium of the host cell—for example, S. cerevisiae. The single amino acid point mutations in Cel5a that confer increased protein expression of the Cel5a mutant protein in S. cerevisiae compared to the level of wild type Cel5a protein expression in S. cerevisiae, include: D13E, T18P, G64A, N76P, S79P/Q/E, T80E/Q, I82L/M, V101I/L, A122E, S133R, S139P, N155E/Q, T156E, G189S/A/E/K, K219Q/A, G239E/N/D, V265T, D271Y/F, Y278F, G293A, S309W/F/L, or S318P/Q/E. These point mutations are characterized for protein expression in, for example, Examples 1-3 and Tables I-IV and VI.

In some embodiments of the present invention, combinations of point mutations confer increased Cel5a protein expression. In some embodiments a Cel5a mutant endoglucanase has a combination of point mutations in the Cel5a amino acid sequence including one of the following sets of mutations:

T80E, S133R, N155E, G239E, Y278F, and S318Q;

G189A, F191V, G239D, S242A, V265T, D271Y, S318P/E, and S322A;

E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309L, and S318P;

E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309W, and S318P;

E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309L, and S318E;

E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309W, and S318E; or

E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, F191V, T233V, G239E, V265T, D271Y, G293A, S309W, and S318P.

Excluding the combination set of (T80E, S133R, N155E, G239E, Y278F, and S318Q), the Cel5a combination mutants having increased Cel5a expression as listed above, also have increased thermostability and enzymatic activity as disclosed herein. As such, each of the combinations of point mutations (excluding the indicated combination) produce a Cel5a mutant that is stable at a higher temperature than wild type Cel5a, is more enzymatically active than wild type Cel5a, and is expressed at higher levels.

The following Examples are presented for illustrative purposes only, and do not limit the scope or content of the present application.

Example 1 Identification of D13E, E53D, T57N, G189A, G293A Cel5a Mutants

Experiments were pursued to uncover stabilizing consensus mutations in the primary endoglucanase Cel5a from Hypocrea jecorina (HjCel5a), a molecule with ˜400 homologous sequences in the NCBI non-redundant protein database. Using this data, six multiple sequence alignments (MSAs) were constructed varying in the number, level of characterization, and percent identity to the query of the aligned sequences. The alignments were filtered with numerical thresholds to reveal highly conserved residues (high relative entropy) at positions able to mutate independently of other protein sites (low mutual information). Using this method, five thermostabilizing point mutations were identified: D13E (+3.0° C.), E53D (+2.7° C.), T57N (+1.1° C.), G189A (+0.4° C.), and G293A (+3.6° C.).

Experimental Screening and Validation of Thermostability Enhancing Mutations.

After applying the relative entropy (RE) and mutual information (MI) constraints, a total of 21 unique mutations were predicted as stabilizing from six consensus sequence alignments. Point mutants were constructed, proteins were secreted from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and supernatants were screened for activity on Avicel, a microcrystalline cellulose powder, at a temperature two degrees higher (73° C.) than the wild type (WT) T_(m) (FIG. 1). As a result of screening supernatant, high signal can indicate greater thermostability, activity, and/or expression, all desirable traits. Mutations D13E, E53D, T57N, I82L, V101L, G189A, and G293A demonstrated greater activity than WT and were selected for further characterization.

The seven candidate HjCel5a point mutants were purified and pre-incubated at a gradient of temperatures for 10 minutes (min) before adding Avicel to assess activity over 2 hours at 60° C. Five mutations exhibited a T₅₀, the temperature at which half of the total enzyme remains active, greater than WT (ΔT_(50, D13E)=3.0, ΔT_(50, E53D)=2.7, ΔT_(50, T57N)=1.1, ΔT_(50, G189A)=0.4, and ΔT_(50, G239A)=3.6° C.) (Table I, FIG. 2, FIGS. 3A-3G). The two remaining mutations exhibited slightly lower stabilities than WT (ΔT_(50, I82L)=−0.3, ΔT_(50, V101L)=−0.4) and likely exhibit high activity on the screen due to increases in expression level (Table I).

TABLE 1 Structural Analysis of Stabilizing Mutations Activity ΔActivity Expression T_(50,WT) ^(a) T_(50,mut) ΔT₅₀ (μM Cellobiose (μM Cellobiose Level Relative Mutations (° C.) (° C.) (° C.) Equivalents) Equivalents) to WT Location WT — — —  193.7 ± 12.23 0.0 — — D13E 68.6 ± 0.3 71.5 ± 0.4 3.0 ± 0.5 184.4 ± 1.15 −9.3 1.6 Core E53D 68.7 ± 0.3 71.4 ± 0.6 2.7 ± 0.7 201.9 ± 4.91 8.2 0.9 Boundary T57N 71.0 ± 0.0 72.1 ± 0.0 1.1 ± 0.0 240.7 ± 4.08 47.0 0.3 Surface G189A 70.8 ± 0.3 71.2 ± 0.3 0.4 ± 0.4 190.3 ± 3.37 −3.4 1.2 Boundary G293A 70.7 ± 0.1 74.3 ± 0.1 3.9 ± 0.2 221.0 ± 1.75 27.3 0.8 Core I82L 69.1 ± 0.4 68.9 ± 0.3 −0.2 ± 0.5   N/A N/A 1.6 Core V101L 68.8 ± 0.1 68.3 ± 0.3 −0.5 ± 0.3   N/A N/A 2.3 Core ^(a)The T₅₀ of WT HjCel5A fluctuates by 1° C. due to variables described in the materials and methods section. All mutants were assayed simultaneously with a WT standard.

Activity of Stabilizing Mutations.

To ensure that the stabilizing mutations do not adversely affect enzymatic activity, the five point mutants were tested for hydrolysis on Avicel after 2 hours at 60° C. (FIG. 4). The T57N and G293A mutants show significantly elevated activity, while the activities of the remaining mutants are comparable to WT (Table I).

MSA Construction and Analysis.

Sequences homologous to the catalytic domain of HjCel5a (from GVR to CLARKG) were retrieved using the Position-Specific Iterated BLAST (PSI-BLAST) database search applied to the non-redundant protein sequences National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) database. (Altschul et al. 1997, Nucleic Acids Research, 25:3389-3402, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference.) Constraints on the percent identity of the sequences to the query were introduced using the formatting options feature within the BLAST tool. Relative entropy was calculated using the yeast codon probabilities from Sullivan et al. 2012, J. Molec. Biol., 420:384-399, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference.

Cel5a Plasmid Construction.

The Cel5a gene was synthesized by DNA 2.0 (Menlo Park, Calif., USA) with codon frequency optimized for S. cerevisiae. The construct consists of an αMFpp8 secretory leader sequence (GenBank BK006949 193648-194145) followed by a region coding for the CBM from the H. jecorina CBM (GenBank ABA64553.1) preceded by an extra ‘AR’ introduced during cloning. This DNA sequence (SEQ ID NO: 2) is:

5′-GGCTAGACAACAAACAGTATGGGGTCAATGTGGTGGTATTGG ATGGTCTGGTCCGACAAACTGTGCTCCAGGCTCGGCATGTTCGAC ACTAAATCCATATTACGCTCAATGTATCCCTGGCGCTACCACTAT AACAACTTCTACTAGACCACCTTCTGGTCCGACGACAACTACAAG GGCTACCTCAACCTCTTCCTCTACACCCCCTACTTCCAGC-3′

The additional ‘AR’ sequence does not significantly affect any protein properties. The CBM region is then followed by an HjCel5a catalytic domain sequence identical to GenBank entry JN172972.1. This construct contains a short linker and an N-terminal His-tag. The assembled gene was cloned into the yeast expression vector YEp352/PGK91-1-αss between the BglII and MboI restriction sites using the Gibson assembly method, as described in Gibson et al. 2009, Nature Methods, 6:343-345, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference. Point mutations were introduced using the QuikChange Lightning Site-Directed Mutagenesis Kit from Agilent Technologies (Santa Clara, Calif., USA) using primers designed with the online tool provided by Agilent:

Following sequence verification, clones were transformed into YDR483W BY4742 ΔKre2 S. cerevisiae cells using the method outlined in Schiestl et al. “Introducing DNA into yeast by transformation,” In: Johnston, M, Fields S., Eds., 1993, Methods: A Companion to Methods in Enzymology, Acad. Press, Inc. pp. 79-85, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference.

Thermostability/Activity Screen.

S. cerevisiae carrying the HjCel5a plasmid were inoculated into 1 mL SD-Ura media in 24-well plates and allowed to grow overnight at 30° C. with shaking at 200 rpm. 4 mL of YPD (yeast extract peptone-dextrose) were added and the cells were allowed to shake at 30° C. for an additional 48 hours before harvesting the supernatant through centrifugation. 5 μL of supernatant, 45 μL of YPD, and 60 μL of a 1.5% Avicel PH-101 (Sigma-Aldrich) slurry in 50 mL sodium acetate, pH 5.0 (cellulase buffer) were combined in a 96-well PCR plate and incubated for 1.5 hours to allow the CBM to bind to the substrate. The bound enzymes were washed three times with cellulase buffer and incubated at 73° C. for 2 hours. Following hydrolysis, 50 μL of the reaction supernatants were tested for reducing sugar concentrations via a modified Park-Johnson assay. All screen samples were run in duplicate.

Park-Johnson Assay.

To detect reducing end release, 50 μL of sample were combined with 100 μL of reagent A (0.5 g L⁻¹ K₃Fe₃(CN)₆, 34.84 g L⁻¹ PO₄K₂H, pH 6.0) and 50 μL of reagent B (5.3 g L⁻¹ Na₂CO₃, 0.65 g L⁻¹ KCN). In experiments resulting in high amounts of reducing ends, 25 μL of sample is combined with 175 μL of the 2A:1B mixture. After incubating the mixture at 95° C. for 15 minutes in a PCR block, the plate is cooled on ice for five minutes. In a flat well plate, 90 μL of reagent C (2.5 g L⁻¹ FeCl₃, 10 g L⁻¹ polyvinyl pyrrolidone, 2 N H₂SO₄) is combined with 180 μL of the heat treated sample. The sample is then allowed to incubate for five minutes before measuring absorbance at 595 nm.

Enzyme Purification.

Yeast colonies carrying the HjCel5a plasmid were inoculated into 6 mL of SD-Ura media and grown at 30° C. with shaking at 200 rpm. The preculture was then added to YPD and incubated for 48 hours. Following centrifugation, the supernatant was subjected to an 80% ammonium sulfate precipitation. The mixture was spun for 20 minutes at 8 kg and the pellet resuspended in 20 mL of lysis buffer (50 mM NaH₂PO₄ pH 7.4, 300 mM NaCl, 10 mM imidazole). Following a pH adjustment to 7.4, the protein was rotated at 4° C. with 1 mL of Ni-NTA resin (Qiagen) conditioned with lysis buffer for 1 hour. The mixture was loaded into a gravity column, washed with 20 mL of lysis buffer, 20 mL of wash buffer (50 mM NaH₂PO₄ pH 7.4, 300 mM NaCl, 20 mM imidazole), and eluted with 6 mL of elution buffer (50 mM NaH₂PO₄ pH 7.4, 300 mM NaCl, 250 mM imidazole). After concentrating the elution to 0.5 mL, the protein was further purified and buffer exchanged into cellulase buffer through size exclusion chromatography. Protein concentrations were determined through measuring absorbance at 280 nm (ε₂₈₀=81950 cm⁻¹ M⁻¹).

T₅₀ Assay.

To assess thermostability via enzymatic activity, 40 μL of protein at a concentration of 0.25 μM was added to a PCR plate in triplicate for each of 12 temperatures. Enzyme was pretreated from 60-80° C. for ten minutes, then allowed to cool for an additional five minutes. 60 μL of a 1.5% Avicel slurry in cellulase buffer was added to each well and the plates were incubated at 60° C. for an hour. The plates were promptly cooled for 5 minutes on ice then centrifuged for 5 minutes to pellet the Avicel. Activity assessment with the Park-Johnson assay immediately followed using a 50 μL sample volume. To compare T₅₀ values, the data were scaled from 0 to 1 using the following equation:

${{Fraction}\mspace{14mu} {Active}} = \frac{\left( {A_{T} - A_{\min}} \right)}{\left( {A_{\max} - A_{\min}} \right)}$

In the above equation, A_(T) is the activity as measured by A₅₉₅ at a particular temperature, A_(min) is the lowest observed activity, and A_(max) is the highest observed activity for a particular protein. T₅₀ values were derived from generating curve fits using the Hill equation:

${{Curve}\mspace{14mu} {Fit}} = \frac{T^{n}}{T^{n} + m^{n}}$

Here n is the Hill coefficient, m is the T₅₀, and T is the temperature. Values for n and m were solved using the curve fit tool in MATLAB. (MATLAB and Statistics Toolbox Release 2011, The MathWorks, Inc., Natick, Mass., United States, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference.) Because the T₅₀ can fluctuate by approximately 1° C. depending on fluctuations in Avicel milling, subtle changes in cooling time, and PCR plate edge effects, all samples were run simultaneously with a WT standard. The ΔT₅₀ values are calculated as T_(50, mut)−T_(50, WT).

Single-Point Activity Assay.

To determine enzyme activity, 40 μL of enzyme at 0.5 μM was combined with 60 μL of 1.5% Avicel in a PCR plate. The mixture was incubated at 60° C. for two hours to allow hydrolysis to proceed. After cooling the plate on ice for 5 minutes, 100 μL of 0, 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, and 350 μM cellobiose standards were added to the plate in triplicate. The plate was centrifuged to pellet the Avicel and 25 μL of the samples were extracted to perform a Park Johnson activity assay. All samples were tested in triplicate.

Example 2 Identification of S79Q, T80E, I82M, V101I, S133R, N155E, N155Q, T156E, G239E, Y278F, S318E, and S318Q Cel5a Mutants

Utilizing a core repacking algorithm, 32 HjCel5a mutations were identified. These 32 mutations were individually cloned as point mutations and screened for stability and adequate activity (FIG. 5), following methods disclosed in Example 1. Supernatants harboring secreted protein were screened for activity after incubation for 1 hour at 73° C., 3.5 degrees higher than the WT T_(m) (69.5° C.). Only two mutations with activities exceeding WT were detected from the screening step—I82M and V101I. Two variants, each carrying one of these stabilizing mutations were expressed and purified to assess thermostability more directly. Both mutants showed a slight increase in thermostability with I82M conferring a 0.3 and V101I a 0.5° C. increase in T₅₀, the temperature at which half of the maximal protein activity persists (Table II, FIGS. 6A, 6B).

TABLE II Characterization of stabilizing mutants Activity ΔActivity Expression T_(50,WT) T_(50,mut) ΔT₅₀ (μM Cellobiose (μM Cellobiose ΔΔG^(b) Site Level Relative Construct (° C.) (° C.) (° C.) Equivalents) Equivalents) (kcal mol⁻¹) MI^(b) to WT WT — — —  193.7 ± 12.2 0 — — — Core Mutations I82M 69.5 ± 0.2 69.8 ± 0.5 0.3 ± 0.5 188.5 ± 2.4 −5.2 −0.9 0.48 1.3 V101I 69.6 ± 0.3 70.1 ± 0.2 0.5 ± 0.4 210.1 ± 1.8 16.4 −0.4 0.29 1.7 Helix Mutations T80E 69.3 ± 0.2 69.8 ± 0.1 0.5 ± 0.2 203.6 ± 9.2 9.8 2.7 0.73 2.3 S133R 68.9 ± 0.1 69.4 ± 0.1 0.4 ± 0.2 197.1 ± 2.6 3.4 1.8 0.88 1.8 N155E 69.5 ± 0.3 70.0 ± 0.1 0.5 ± 0.3 199.4 ± 1.1 5.6 0.5 0.69 4.9 N155Q 68.4 ± 0.1 68.5 ± 0.1 0.1 ± 0.1 172.8 ± 4.0 −20.9 0.1 0.69 1.1 T156E 69.5 ± 0.2 69.7 ± 0.3 0.2 ± 0.3 217.6 ± 7.9 23.9 1.2 0.98 4.9 G239E 69.7 ± 0.1 70.0 ± 0.3 0.2 ± 0.3 216.9 ± 6.5 23.2 −0.2 0.96 1.0 Y278F 69.2 ± 0.2 70.2 ± 0.4 1.0 ± 0.5 174.7 ± 2.7 −19.1 1.3 0.64 0.4 S318E 69.7 ± 0.2 70.5 ± 0.1 0.9 ± 0.2 244.1 ± 4.3 50.4 −0.5 N/A^(a) 0.6 S318Q 68.9 ± 0.1 69.4 ± 0.2 0.5 ± 0.2 196.0 ± 2.4 2.3 −0.3 N/A^(a) 0.9 S79Q 69.4 ± 0.2 69.5 ± 0.2 0.0 ± 0.3 174.4 ± 5.1 −19.3 0.4 0.61 1.4 S79E 69.9 ± 0.2 69.7 ± 0.0 −0.1 ± 0.2   N/A N/A −0.3 0.61 5.5 T80Q 69.2 ± 0.2 69.1 ± 0.1 −0.1 ± 0.2   N/A N/A 3.2 0.73 2.0 A122E 69.0 ± 0.5 68.8 ± 0.2 −0.2 ± 0.5   N/A N/A 1.0 0.51 3.2 G239Q 69.1 ± 0.1 68.5 ± 0.1 −0.9 ± 0.2   N/A N/A −1.6 0.96 0.9 Helix Combo 69.5 ± 0.5 71.9 ± 0.3 2.4 ± 0.5 N/A N/A N/A N/A 4.5 (^(a)Insufficient homologous sequence data. ^(b)Values calculated from the 444 sequence MSA of Example 1.)

A helix dipole stabilization calculation as developed by Marshall et al. was used to select 44 predicted helix mutations. (Marshall et al. 2002, J. of Molec. Biol., 316:189-199, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference.) These 44 predicted helix mutations were constructed as point mutants and screened for activity (FIG. 7) with the same procedure used to probe core mutations. In the activity screen, 14 constructs demonstrated greater activity than WT. Following purification and activity screening at a gradient of temperatures, nine constructs demonstrated a positive ΔT₅₀ (T80E, S133R, N155E, N155Q, T165E, G239E, Y278F, S318E, and S318Q), four showed a decrease in thermostability (S79E, T80Q, A122E, and G239Q), and one behaved similarly to WT (S79Q) (Table II, FIGS. 8A-8N). As is the case with the core mutations, the helix dipole stabilizing mutations provide modest stability benefits (ΔT₅₀≦1° C.). Only five of the nine stabilizing mutations exhibit a ΔT₅₀≧0.5° C.

Given the relatively low enhancements in thermostability observed for the helix dipole stabilizing mutations, it remained unclear whether these mutations would provide any tangible benefit. A combination construct (Helix combo) containing the T80E, S133R, N155E, G239E, Y278F, and S318Q mutations was constructed and the ΔT₅₀ (2.4° C.) and optimal reaction temperature (T_(opt,helix combo)=66° C., T_(opt,WT)=63.5° C.) were determined (FIGS. 9A-9B). Both values show modest increases of ˜2.5° C. While the six stabilizing mutations did not additively increase T₅₀ and T_(opt), the combination mutant still demonstrates improved thermostability compared to the most beneficial helix point mutant. In addition, the combination mutant shows a 4.5 fold improvement in expression over WT (Table II).

Activity of Stabilized Mutants.

Useful enzyme mutations not only confer stability, but also elevate or preserve activity. The activity of each stabilizing point mutation was tested at 60° C. for two hours on Avicel, a crystalline cellulose powder (Table II). While the two stabilizing core mutants have activities comparable to WT (FIGS. 10A, 10B), the helix mutations show an even distribution between lower and higher activities (FIG. 10C).

Expression.

In addition to preserving activity, desirable mutations will also maintain or enhance protein expression levels. Five of the helix dipole stabilizing hits on the activity screen were either neutral or destabilizing. Four of these mutations confer greater protein expression than WT in S. cerevisiae, which is the probable cause for their high activity in the screen. In general, the point mutants and helix combination mutant demonstrated large increases in expression level (Table II). The catalytic domain of HjCel5a V101I was expressed in Escherichia coli, resulting in a three-fold increase in protein yield.

Structure Preparation.

Designs were performed on chain A of the HjCel5a crystal structure (PDB ID 3QR3). (Lee et al. 2011, Protein Science, 20:1935-1940, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference.) After removing water molecules and ions, hydrogens were added to the structure using the protein process application within the design software TRIAD (Triad, 2012, Protabit, LLC, Pasadena, Calif.). This application was additionally employed to optimize the structure through 50 steps of gradient-based energy minimization using the energy function described in the computational design section.

Computational Design.

Computational design parameters outlined in this section were kept consistent between the core repacking and helix dipole stabilization calculations. All calculations were executed using an energy function based on the DREIDING forcefield that includes terms for van der Waals hydrogen bonding, electrostatics, implicit solvation, and phi-psi propensities. (Mayo et al. 1990, J. of Phys. Chem., 94:8897-8909; Dahiyat et al. 1997, PNAS, 94:10172-10177; and Dahiyat et al. 1997, Prot. Science, 6:1333-1337, the entire contents of all of which are herein incorporated by reference.) In calculating the implicit solvation term, an occlusion-based solvation potential was applied with scale factors of 0.05 for nonpolar burial, 2.5 for nonpolar exposure, and 1.0 for polar burial, as described in Chica et al. 2010, PNAS, 107:20257-20262, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference. Sequence optimization was performed with FASTER and a Monte Carlo-based algorithm was used to sample sequences near the minimum energy sequence. (Allen et al. 2006, J. Computational Chem., 27:1071-1075; Desmet et al. 2002, Proteins: Structure, Function, and Bioinformatics, 48:31-43; Metropolis et al. 1953, J. of Chem Physics, 21:1087-1092; and Voigt et al. 2000, J of Molec. Biol., 299:789-803, the entire contents of all of which are herein incorporated by reference.

Cel5a Plasmid Construction.

Cel5a mutants were constructed as described in Example 1.

Thermostability/Activity Screen.

Thermostability and activity screens were performed as described in Example 1.

T_(opt) Assay.

To assess the optimal operating temperature of HjCel5a constructs, 40 μL of protein at a concentration of 0.25 μM was combined with 60 μL of a 1.5% Avicel slurry in cellulase buffer in a PCR plate in triplicate for each of 12 temperatures. The plates were incubated at 60° C. for two hours and promptly cooled for 5 minutes on ice. After centrifugation for 5 minutes to pellet the insoluble substrate, activity was assessed with the Park-Johnson assay as described in Example 1, using a 25 μL sample volume. Bovine serum albumin (BSA) at a final concentration identical to the protein of interest served as a negative control.

Enzyme Purification.

Cel5a proteins were cultured and purified as described in Example 1.

T₅₀ Assay.

The T50 assay was performed as described in Example 1.

Single-Point Activity Assay.

The single-point activity assay was performed as described in Example 1.

Example 3 Identification of T18P, N76P, S79P, S139P, N153D, G189A, G189S, G189E, G189Q, K219A, K219Q, G239S, G239D, G239N, D271Y, D271F, G293A, S309L, S309F, S309W, S318P, Cel5a Mutants

FoldX Designs.

In silico site-saturated mutagenesis was performed on chain A from the HjCel5a crystal structure (PDB ID 3QR3). Out of 6,232 possible point mutations, FoldX predicted 1008 as stabilizing (ΔΔG<0 kcal mol⁻¹). As this sizeable pool of candidate mutations was too large to screen using available resources, mutations with a ΔΔG≦−1.75 kcal mol⁻¹ were examined. In addition, the energy cutoff was tightened from −0.75 to −1.75 kcal mol⁻¹ as described in Komor et al. 2012, Prot. Eng. Des. Sel., 25:827-833, the entire contents of which is herein incorporated by reference. Applying this stringent criterion reduced the candidate pool to 43 mutations.

Triad ΔΔG Designs.

In parallel to the FoldX designs, site-saturated mutagenesis using Triad was used with the Rosetta forcefield and the HjCel5a crystal structure. Out of 6,232 possible point mutations, 789 were predicted as stabilizing (ΔΔG<0). To reduce the number of candidate mutations to a manageable quantity, an arbitrary −1.75 kcal mol⁻¹ cutoff was applied leaving 47 mutations.

Detecting Stabilizing Mutations.

Point mutants for each of the 43 FoldX and 44 Triad mutations were constructed for secretion in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Proteins were expressed and the supernatant was screened for activity at 73° C., 3.5 degrees higher than the melting temperature (T_(m)) of the native protein. Six FoldX and five Triad mutants demonstrated higher activity than wild type (WT) and were selected for more rigorous characterization.

As the screen was performed on unpurified protein in supernatant, hits may indicate a variant with improved thermostability, yield, activity, or a combination thereof. To determine the source of their improvement, the mutants and WT were simultaneously assayed for activity at 60° C. following a 10 minute incubation at a gradient of temperatures ranging from 60-80° C. The T₅₀, the temperature at which half of the maximum protein activity persists, of the mutation was computed and compared to the WT value. All of the mutations proved more thermostable than WT (ΔT₅₀>0° C.), as summarized in Table III below.

TABLE III Characterization of FoldX and Triad ΔΔG mutations Activity ΔActivity Expression T_(50,WT) T_(50,mut) ΔT₅₀ (μM Cellobiose (μM Cellobiose FoldX ΔΔG Triad ΔΔG Level Construct (° C.) (° C.) (° C.) Equivalents) Equivalents) (kcal mol⁻¹) (kcal mol⁻¹) (Mut/WT) Location WT — — —  193.7 ± 12.2 0.0 — — — FoldX S79P 69.9 ± 0.3 70.2 ± 0.5 0.3 ± 0.5 205.1 ± 6.7 11.4 −1.84 0.97 1.0 Surface N153D 70.3 ± 0.7 70.7 ± 0.6 0.5 ± 0.9 196.2 ± 1.5 2.5 −2.91 −0.25 0.2 Surface D271F 70.5 ± 0.9 73.6 ± 0.6 3.1 ± 1.1 167.2 ± 6.3 −26.5 −2.23 −1.08 0.1 Boundary D271Y 71.3 ± 0.3 73.9 ± 0.1 2.7 ± 0.4 209.5 ± 3.9 32.5 −1.83 −1.07 0.4 Boundary S309L 71.3 ± 0.3 72.7 ± 0.3 1.5 ± 0.3 196.1 ± 1.9 2.4 −1.78 −2.26 0.8 Boundary S318P 69.9 ± 0.6 73.1 ± 0.6 3.2 ± 0.9 218.5 ± 3.4 24.8 −2.32 3.27 0.3 Surface Triad K219A 68.1 ± 0.7 70.1 ± 0.1 2.0 ± 0.7 167.0 ± 6.2 −26.7 2.07 −3.20 1.4 Core K219Q 68.5 ± 0.0 71.3 ± 0.1 2.8 ± 0.1 162.0 ± 1.4 −31.7 1.28 −1.92 1.2 Core S309F 68.3 ± 0.1 71.0 ± 0.1 2.7 ± 0.1 164.1 ± 8.6 −29.7 −0.57 −1.94 0.8 Boundary S309L 71.3 ± 0.3 72.7 ± 0.3 1.5 ± 0.3 196.1 ± 1.9 2.4 −1.78 −2.26 0.8 Boundary S309W 68.2 ± 0.0 68.6 ± 0.1 0.4 ± 0.1 202.8 ± 6.8 9.1 0.19 −2.24 0.5 Boundary

FoldX predicted three highly stabilizing mutations, D271F (ΔT₅₀=3.1° C.), D271Y (ΔT₅₀=2.7° C.), and S318P (ΔT₅₀=3.2° C.). Similarly, three mutations among the Triad predictions, K219A (ΔT₅₀=2.0° C.), K219Q (ΔT₅₀=2.8° C.), and S309F (ΔT₅₀=2.7° C.), conferred significant increases in stability. The mutant expression levels were similar or lower than WT.

Activity of Stabilizing FoldX and Triad Mutants.

To determine whether the stabilizing FoldX and Triad mutations impact activity, purified protein was assayed for activity after 2 hours at 60° C. (Table III, FIGS. 11A, 11B and 13A, 13B). While the Rosetta mutations show decreased activity compared to WT, the FoldX mutations exhibit more diversity in activity. Notably, the FoldX mutations S318P and D271Y elevate the WT activity by 12.8 and 16.8%.

Backbone Stabilization: Removing Glycines and Adding Prolines.

To test the hypothesis that adapting empirical methods to improve backbone stability may provide additional stabilizing mutations, all Gly→X_(AA) and X_(AA)→Pro mutations were fetched and ranked by ΔΔG value. All of the mutations with ΔΔG values ≦0 kcal mol⁻¹ were designated as potentially stabilizing. This relaxed cutoff allowed for the prediction of mutations that did not pass the −1.75 kcal mol⁻¹ threshold enforced in the general Triad ΔΔG calculation. Only five mutual members appear in both the general Triad and glycine mutation lists. In addition, all predicted proline mutations were previously uncharacterized.

In total, 51 glycine and 46 proline mutations were predicted as stabilizing. Due to screening constraints, only the top 44 glycine (FIG. 14A) and 46 proline (FIG. 14B) mutants were constructed and screened using the setup described for the FoldX and Rosetta constructs. Nine glycine and three proline mutants demonstrated higher activity than WT on the screen. After purifying these enzymes and determining their ΔT₅₀s, five glycine (G189A ΔT₅₀=0.4° C., G189S ΔT₅₀=1.2° C., G239D ΔT₅₀=0.4° C., G239N ΔT₅₀=0.7° C., and G293A ΔT₅₀=3.5° C.) and three proline mutations (T18P ΔT₅₀=2.0° C., N76P ΔT₅₀=2.0° C., and S139P ΔT₅₀=2.0° C.) demonstrated thermostability benefits (Table IV, FIGS. 15A-15B, 16A-16B).

TABLE IV Backbone stabilizing mutations Activity ΔActivity (μM (μM Expression T_(50,WT) T_(50,mut) ΔT₅₀ Cellobiose Cellobiose FoldX ΔΔG Triad ΔΔG Level Construct (° C.) (° C.) (° C.) Equivalents) Equivalents) (kcal mol⁻¹) (kcal mol⁻¹) (Mut/WT) Location WT — — —  193.7 ± 12.2 0 — — — GLY → X_(AA) G189A 70.8 ± 0.3 71.2 ± 0.3 0.4 ± 0.4 170.1 ± 3.4 −23.7 −0.93 −0.76 1.2 Boundary G189S 70.1 ± 0.3 71.3 ± 0.2 1.2 ± 0.4 208.2 ± 6.0 14.5 −0.45 −0.97 1.2 Boundary G239D 70.8 ± 0.1 71.2 ± 0.1 0.4 ± 0.2 185.6 ± 3.1 −8.1 −0.80 −1.46 1.3 Boundary G239N 70.4 ± 0.1 71.1 ± 0.0 0.7 ± 0.1 174.9 ± 4.3 −18.8 −0.13 −1.43 1.1 Boundary G293A 70.3 ± 0.1 73.7 ± 0.1 3.5 ± 0.2 221.0 ± 1.2 27.3 6.66 −0.08 0.8 Core G189E 70.6 ± 0.1 70.6 ± 0.2 0.0 ± 0.2 N/A N/A −0.58 −1.01 2.0 Boundary G64A 70.3 ± 0.1 69.6 ± 0.1 −0.7 ± 0.1   190.5 ± 5.0 −3.2 2.97 −0.30 2.3 Core G189K 70.6 ± 0.1 70.5 ± 0.1 −0.1 ± 0.2   N/A N/A −0.89 −0.55 1.2 Boundary G239S 70.8 ± 0.2 69.7 ± 0.3 −1.0 ± 0.3   N/A N/A −0.20 −1.04 0.9 Boundary X_(AA) → PRO T18P 70.2 ± 0.1 70.4 ± 0.0 0.2 ± 0.1 187.5 ± 3.8 −6.2 −1.67 0.46 1.1 Surface N76P 69.7 ± 0.2 70.5 ± 0.4 0.8 ± 0.5 177.3 ± 6.8 −16.4 0.00 0.95 1.7 Surface S139P 69.6 ± 0.2 71.5 ± 0.6 1.8 ± 0.6 152.1 ± 8.0 −41.6 −1.33 2.14 1.8 Surface Disulfide Mutations I44C/G91C 69.8 ± 0.4 69.3 ± 0.5 −0.5 ± 0.7   N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.8 Surface/ Boundary

FoldX Calculation.

All FoldX calculations were performed with version 3.0, as described in Schymokowitz et al. 2005, Nucl. Acids Research, 33:W382-W388, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference. After removing waters and ligands, Chain A from the HjCel5a crystal structure (PDB ID: 3QR3) was prepared using the optimize and repair PDB functions within the software. A position scan was performed to compute energy values for WT and mutations to all other 19 amino acids. To compute ΔΔG values, each mutation was compared to WT using the following equation:

ΔΔG _(Mut) =ΔG _(Mut) −ΔG _(WT)

where ΔG_(mut) is the energy computed for the mutation and ΔG_(WT) is the energy computed for the WT residue at the same position. All calculations were performed using default parameters unless otherwise specified.

Triad ΔΔG Calculation.

All Rosetta calculations were performed using a modified version of the rosetta energy function described by Rohl et al. and implemented within the protein design software Triad (2012, Protabit, LLC, Pasadena, Calif.). (Rohl et al. 2004, Methods in Enzymol., Academic press, pp. 66-93, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference. The version of rosetta implemented in Triad employs a softer Lennard-Jones potential, a different set of amino-acid reference energies, and modified hydrogen bond and amino acid propensity weights. The energy function also lacks terms unnecessary for point mutation calculations including those for disulfide bonding, Ramachandran, proline closure, and omega tethering. Designs were performed on chain A of the HjCel5a crystal structure (PDB ID 3QR3) (Lee et al. 2011, supra). After removing water molecules and ions, hydrogens were added to the structure using the protein process application within the design software Triad. Triad was additionally employed to optimize the structure through 50 steps of gradient-based energy minimization using the rosetta forcefield.

Glycine Scan.

The glycine scan was performed in Triad using the modified version of the rosetta forcefield described in the Triad ΔΔG Calculation section (above). The scan mutates glycine in the native structure to each of the other 19 amino acids. All other conditions addressed in the rosetta calculation section apply to the glycine scan. The information calculated here is simply a subset of the data retrieved from the more comprehensive Triad-rosetta ΔΔG scan and is reformatted to facilitate data analysis.

Proline Scan.

The proline scans were performed with a restricted version of the algorithm used for the original Triad ΔΔG scan calculation. This scheme calculates ΔΔG values for mutating every position in the protein to proline and provides a ranked list of mutations. As in the glycine calculation, the generated information is a reformatted subset of the data retrieved from the Triad ΔΔG scan.

Disulfide Bond Engineering Calculations.

Disulfide bond engineering calculations were performed using the ssdesign application in the protein design software Triad. If two cysteine (CSS) rotamers come in close contact, the program adopts smaller values for force constants and barriers for DREIDING bonds, angles, and torsions. This leniency has been optimized to detect native disulfides as many disulfide geometries show slight deviations from canonical values. To design disulfides, the rotamer optimization algorithm simultaneously switches a pair of residues to CSS rotamers. Pair moves are biased towards those with good pairwise energies, i.e., those likely to form disulfides. Calculations were performed with 7 trajectories, a rotamer pair factor of 10, an iterations multiplier of 5, a disulfide force constant of 15, a disulfide max benefit of 35, and a CSS penalty of 15. All calculations employed a version of the rosetta forcefield, as described in the Triad ΔΔG Calculation section (above), modified to employ the DREIDING disulfide bonding energy terms. The term used for bonds within disulfides is:

E _(bond)=12700.0B _(1,2)(r _(1,2) −R ₂)²

where B is the bond order (1, 1.5, 2, or 3), r is the Cartesian distance between atoms 1 and 2, and R is the equilibrium bond distance between atoms 1 and 2. The term for disulfide angles is as follows:

E _(angle)=12100.0(∩_(1,2,3)−θ_(1,2,3))²

where ∩_(1,2,3) is the observed angle between atoms 1, 2, and 3 and θ_(1,2,3) is the equilibrium angle. Disulfide torsion angles are defined as:

E _(torsion)=12K _(1,2,3,4) N(1−d _(1,2,3,4) cos(n _(1,2,3,4)χ_(1,2,3,4))

where K_(1,2,3,4) is the energy barrier, N is the number of torsion terms where atoms 2 and 3 are placed in the center, d_(1,2,3,4) is the phase factor (1 for cis, −1 for trans), n_(1,2,3,4) is the periodicity, and χ_(1,2,3,4) is the torsion angle.

Additional disulfide bond engineering calculations were performed using the online server for Disulfide by Design version 2.11 (Dombkowski, 2003, Bioinformatics, 19:1852-1852, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference.) Calculations were executed on both chains in the HjCel5a crystal structure (PDB ID 3QR3). Disulfide bonds principally contain four atoms linked in a linear fashion: C_(β)—S_(γ)—S_(γ)—C_(β). In this calculation, a disulfide model is generated with fixed C_(β)—S_(γ) (1.81 Å) and S_(γ)—S_(γ) (2.04 Å) bond lengths and C_(β)—S_(γ)—S_(γ) (104.15°) bond angles. To initiate the calculation, a pair of residues is chosen. The χ3 torsion angle, formed through rotating the C_(β) about the S_(γ)—S_(γ) bond, is allowed to vary until the C_(β)—C_(β) distance matches that observed in the crystal structure. Energies (E_(ij)) are then calculated using the following equations:

E _(ij) =E(χ_(1,i))+E(χ_(1,j))+E(θ_(i))+E(θ_(j))  (1)

E(χ1)=1.4[1+cos(3χ₁)]  (2)

E(χ₃)=4.0[1−cos(2χ₃+160)]  (3)

E(θ)=55.0[θ−θ₀]²  (4)

Where i and j are residue positions, θ is the C_(α)—C_(β)—S_(γ) angle, and θ₀=114.6°. Energies are computed in kcal mol⁻¹ with higher values corresponding to more favorable mutations. All calculations were performed with default settings.

Cel5a Plasmid Construction.

Double mutants for disulfide engineering were constructed using a modified version of the Quikchange method in which two primer pairs are added to a single reaction. Additional details are as described in Example 1.

Thermostability/Activity Screen.

Thermostability and activity screens were performed as described in Example 1.

Enzyme Purification.

Cel5a proteins were cultured and purified as described in Example 1.

Park-Johnson Assay.

The Park-Johnson assay was performed as described in Example 1.

T₅₀ Assay.

The T₅₀ assay was performed as described in Example 1.

Single-Point Activity Assay.

The single-point activity assay was performed as described in Example 1.

Example 4 Identification of G189A, F191V, G239D, T233V, S242A, V265T, D271Y, S318P, and S322A

Using a SCHEMA algorithm, a Cel5a chimera library was designed. Hypocrea jecorina Cel5a was recombined with three homologues from thermophilic fungi (Phialophora sp. G5, Penicillium decumbens, Penicillium pinophilum).

Out of this Cel5a chimera library, 25 chimeras were synthesized, appending to the N-terminus of each the cellulose binding module (CBM) form H. jecorina Cel5a, as well as a C-terminal His6 tag for purification. The chimeras were expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and purified using column chromatography. It was observed that 23 out of the 25 chimeras were catalytically active, and the thermostabilities were measured by finding the temperature at which the enzymes loses half of its activity relative to that at its optimum temperature over a 2 hour (h) reaction period (“T_(A50)”). The T_(A50)'s for all of the functional chimeras was measured on crystalline cellulose (Avicel). The test set exhibits a range of thermostability values from which a regression model was built.

Regression Modeling Predicts a Highly Stable Chimera.

The revised linear regression model predicts that only two blocks are stabilizing relative to HjCel5a: blocks 6 and 7 from PgCel5a (+1.0° C. and +3.3° C., respectively). Combining these two blocks created chimera 110, which is 4.3° C. more stable and 18 mutations away from its closest parent, HjCel5a. Since chimera blocks may contain both stabilizing and destabilizing point mutations, each of the 18 single amino acid mutations were introduced into these blocks in HjCel5a individually and the thermostabilities of the mutant enzymes were tested.

As shown in FIG. 17, nine of the eighteen mutations were stabilizing, and seven were destabilizing, while two had no effect. The nine stabilizing HjCel5a point mutations include G189A, F191V, G239D, T233V, S242A, V265T, D271Y, S318P, and S322A. Subsequently all of the stabilizing mutations (save for T233V, which compromised activity slightly) were combined to create chimera 110F. This chimera had a stability increase (as measured by T_(A50) of 10.1° C. relative to HjCel5a (FIG. 18A). Its optimal temperature was also increased by ˜10° C., and its activity was not compromised by thermostabilization.

To evaluate the improvement of 110F over industrially relevant time scales, its activity was compared to that of HjCel5a over 60 h hydrolyses at 60° C. and 70° C. As shown in FIG. 18B, 110F displays more activity at both temperatures, and it remains highly active at 70° C. over a 60 h period, whereas wild-type HjCel5a is nearly inactive at 70° C.

Cel5a Plasmid Construction.

Genes encoding Hypocrea jecorina Cel5a, Phialophora sp. G5 Cel5a, Penicillium decumbens Cel5a, and Penicillium pinophilum Cel5a were synthesized with S. cerevisiae codon bias (DNA 2.0, Menlo Park, Calif.), and cloned into the yeast secretion vector YEp352/PGK91-1-αss as described previously by Komor et al. 2012, supra and Wu et al. 2013, Biotech. and Bioeng., 110:1874-1883, the entire contents of both of which are herein incorporated by reference. Each gene had a C-terminal linker and carbohydrate binding module from H. jecorina Cel5a.

SCHEMA Guided Structure-Based Recombination.

Gene sequences of Hypocrea jecorina Cel5a, Phialophora sp. G5 Cel5a, Penicillium decumbens Cel5a, and Penicillium pinophilum Cel5a were aligned using the MUSCLE multiple sequence alignment software, as described by Edgar, 2004, Nucleic acids research, 32:1792-1797, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference. The structure of the catalytic domain of H. jecorina Cel5a (PDB structure 3QR3 chain A) was used to build a map of amino acid contacts. (Lee et al., 2011, Protein Science, 20:1935-1940, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference. A contact is defined as two amino acids having at least one non-hydrogen atom within 4.5 Å of each other. Libraries that minimized the average number of disrupted SCHEMA contacts in the resulting chimeras were designed using graph partitioning as described in Smith et al. 2013, ACS Synthetic Biology, Jun. 3, 2013, PMID: 23688124, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference. A library design was chosen with an average SCHEMA energy (number of disrupted contacts) of 12.1 and an average of 55.4 amino acid mutations from the closest parent. The C-terminal linker and carbohydrate binding module from H. jecorina Cel5a was appended to each chimera.

Optimal Experimental Design.

The Submodular Function Optimization Matlab toolbox (Ye et al., J. Comput. Biol., 14: 777-790, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference) was used to choose chimeras that had both low SCHEMA disruption and maximal mutual information between the sampled chimeras and the rest of the library, as described in Romero et al. 2012, ACS Synthetic Biology, 1:221-228, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference.

Chimera Library Construction.

Chimeras were constructed from 500 bp DNA fragments via overlap extension PCR, as described previously in Georgescu et al. 2003, Saturation mutagenesis: In Directed evolution library creation, pp. 75-83, Springer. The DNA fragments (“gBlocks”) were synthesized by Integrated DNA Technologies (San Jose, Calif.). Codons were optimized for yeast expression using Gene Designer software from DNA 2.0 (Menlo Park, Calif.) (Villalobos et al. 2006, BMC Bioinformatics, 7:285, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference.) Genes were cloned into the YEp352/PGK91-1-αss vector using Gibson assembly as described by Gibson 2011, Methods Enzymology, 498: 349-361, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference.

Enzyme Purification.

YEp352/PGK91-1-αss vectors containing Cel5a chimeras were transformed into the BY4742 Δkre2 strain of yeast (BY4742; Mat a; his3D1; leu2D0; lys2D0; ura3D0; YDR483w::kanMX4) obtained from EUROSCARF (Frankfurt, Germany). Yeast colonies expressing Cel5a with C-terminal His₆ tag were grown at 30° C.: first overnight in 5 mL synthetic dextrose-uracil (SD-Ura) medium, then expanded into 50 mL SD-Ura (+50 μg/mL kanamycin) medium for 24 h, and then expanded into 1 L YPD (+50 μg/mL kanamycin) medium for an additional 48 h. Cultures were centrifuged at 4500×g for 20 min and the supernatant was filtered with 0.2 μm PES (polyethersulfone) filter unit from Nalgene (VWR, Radnor, Pa.). Protein was loaded onto 5 mL HisTrap columns and purified using an ÄKTAxpress chromatography system (GE Healthcare, Pittsburgh, Pa.). Purified cellulases were buffered-exchanged to 50 mM sodium acetate buffer pH 5.0 using Vivaspin 20 ultrafiltration spin tubes (GE Healthcare, Pittsburgh, Pa.). Protein concentrations were determined using A280, with theoretical extinction coefficients found using ProtParam on the ExPASy server as described in Gasteiger et al. 2005, The Proteomics Protocols Handbook, pp. 571-607, Springer, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference.

T_(A50) Thermostability Measurements.

100 μL samples in 50 mM sodium acetate buffer, pH 5.0 containing 0.2 μM Cel5a and 1% (w/v) Avicel were incubated at a range of temperatures for 2 h. A modified Park-Johnson reducing sugar assay was used to measure activity (Park and Johnson, 1949, J. Biol. Chem., 181: 149-151, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference.) In brief, reaction mixtures were spun at 1000 g for 5 min to remove Avicel. 50 μL of supernatant was removed and transferred to a mixture of 100 μL ferricyanide reagent (0.5 g/L K₃Fe(CN)₆, 34.84 g/L K₂HPO₄, pH 10.6) and 50 μL carbonate-cyanide reagent (5.3 g/L Na₂CO₃, 0.65 g/L KCN). The reaction was heated at 95° C. for 15 min in an Eppendorf Mastercycler, and then cooled on ice for 5 min. 180 μL of the reaction was removed and mixed with 90 μL ferric iron solution (2.5 g/L FeCl₃, 10 g/L polyvinyl pyrrolidone, 2 N H₂SO₄). After 2 min, absorbance at 595 nm was taken, using solutions of 0 μM to 300 μM cellobiose as standards.

T_(A50) was determined by plotting activities against the temperature using Matlab (Mathworks, Natick, Mass., supra) and fitted using 4-parameter sigmoidal curves. The T_(A50) value is the temperature at which enzyme activity is halfway between optimal activity and no activity. Reported values were averaged from at least two independent measurements.

Cellulase Activity Measurements.

All cellulase activity measurements were conducted in 50 mM sodium acetate buffer, pH 5.0. To determine activity-temperature profiles of Cel5a, samples containing 0.2 μM of purified Cel5a and 1% (w/v) Avicel were incubated at 60 and 70° C. for 60 h. After hydrolysis, the reaction supernatants were sampled for reducing sugar concentrations via Nelson-Somogyi assay, using cellobiose as the reducing sugar standard as described in Somogyi, 1952, J. Biol. Chem., 195: 19-23 and Nelson, 1944, J. Biol. Chem., 153: 375-379, the entire contents of both of which are herein incorporated by reference. In brief: 50 μL of reaction solution was added to 40 μL carbonate-tartrate solution (144 g/L Na₂SO₄, 12 g/L potassium tartrate tetrahydrate, 24 g/L Na₂CO₃, 16 g/L NaHCO₃) and 10 μL copper solution (180 g/L Na₂SO₄, 20 g/L CuSO₄.5H₂O) and heated to 95° C. for 15 min in an Eppendorf Mastercycler. The reaction was placed on ice for 5 min and then mixed with 50 μL arsenomolybdate solution (50 g/L (NH₄)₂MoO₄, 1.5 N H₂SO₄, 6 g/L NaH₂AsO₄). After mixing, absorbance at 520 nm was read, using 0 to 2 mM cellobiose solutions as standards.

Example 5 Combination Cel5a Mutants

First Generation Combination Cel5a Endoglucanase Mutants.

Using the information from Examples 1-4, a series of combination constructs were synthesized containing highly stabilizing mutations. Mutations demonstrating a ΔT₅₀≧0.5° C. were selected for incorporation. If several stabilizing mutations appeared in the same region within the HjCel5a structure, the mutations with the highest ΔT₅₀ values were generally retained. In ambiguous situations where interaction between two sites could not clearly be ascertained, several alternative constructs were tested. A chosen set included 13 possible mutations: T57N, N76P, T80E, S139P, N155E, G189S, K219Q, G239N, D271F, Y278F, G293A, S309F, and S318P.

These mutations were incrementally added to the WT sequence with the least and most mutated constructs containing 1 and 13 mutations, respectively (Table V). Following cloning, mutants were tested for activity with the same screen employed to detect point mutations (FIG. 19A). All of the constructs showed improvements in activity over WT.

TABLE V Composition of Combination Constructs # of Construct Mutations T57N N76P T80E S139P N155E G189S K219Q G239N D271F Y278F G293A S309F S318P 1 1 x 2 1 x 3 1 x 4 2 x x 5 4 x x x x 6 5 x x x x x 7 5 x x x x x 8 5 x x x x x 9 5 x x x x x 10 6 x x x x x x 11 6 x x x x x x 12 6 x x x x x x 13 6 x x x x x x x 14 7 x x x x x x x 15 8 x x x x x x x x 16 9 x x x x x x x x x 17 10 x x x x x x x x x x 18 11 x x x x x x x x x x x 19 12 x x x x x x x x x x x x 20 13 x x x x x x x x x x x x x # of Construct Mutations T57N T80E N155E G189S G239E D271Y G293A S309L/W S318E/P S79P V101I S133R E53D s13pt1 13 x x x x x x x x(L) x(P) x x x x s13pt2 13 x x x x x x x x(W) x(P) x x x x s13pt3 13 x x x x x x x x(L) x(E) x x x x s13pt4 13 x x x x x x x x(W) x(E) x x x x

Two constructs predicted to have either high activity or thermostability were chosen for further characterization. With nine mutations (T57N, N76P, T80E, S139P, N155E, G189S, D271F, Y278F, and G293A), construct 16 demonstrated the greatest performance on the activity screen. Construct 20 contains all 13 possible mutations and was projected to demonstrate the greatest thermostability. These two combination mutants were expressed, purified and tested to assess their hydrolytic capabilities on Avicel over a gradient of temperatures (FIG. 19B), obtain their T₅₀ values (FIG. 19C), and determine their activity at 60° C. after 2 hours (FIG. 19D). Table VI provides a summary of these results. The 9-point mutant (construct 16 of Table V) shows a 10° C. increase in both the optimal operating temperature (T_(opt)) and in T₅₀ relative to WT. As expected, the 13-point mutant demonstrates even greater improvement in thermostability with a 16° C. increase in T_(opt) and a 14° C. increase in T₅₀ relative to WT. These increases, however, were accompanied by decreases in activity of 4% for the 9-point mutant and 17% for the 13-point mutant. FAnalysis revealed that the 13-point mutant contains more mutations that are known from previous experiments to decrease activity than the 9-point mutant. As such, the drop in activity likely originates from the collective effects of point mutations rather than incompatibilities between the mutations.

TABLE VI Characterization of Combination Mutants Activity ΔActivity Expression # of T_(50,mut) ΔT₅₀ T_(opt) (μM Cellobiose (μM Cellobiose Level Relative Construct Mutations (° C.) (° C.) (° C.) Equivalents) Equivalents) to WT WT 0 69.6 ± 1.0 — 64  216.7 ± 10.6 — —  9 pt 9 81.5 ± 0.4 10.0 ± 0.8 74 184.2 ± 5.7 −9.6 3.5 13 pt 13 86.8 ± 0.6 13.8 ± 0.9 80 157.4 ± 1.4 −36.3 4.1 20 pt 20 90.0 ± 0.1 16.8 ± 0.7 82 146.6 ± 9.8 −47.1 2.7 s13pt1 13 85.3 ± 0.2 14.9 ± 0.7 78 192.7 ± 6.9 −1.0 4.1 s13pt2 13 85.6 ± 0.4 15.4 ± 0.7 78 221.1 ± 5.9 27.4 4.1 s13pt3 13 83.0 ± 0.4 12.0 ± 0.8 75 231.2 ± 5.6 37.5 5.9 s13pt4 13 83.9 ± 0.2 12.2 ± 0.7 75  262.6 ± 11.5 68.8 3.7

To ascertain whether additional mutagenesis could counter these activity decreases, a 20-point mutant was constructed containing mutations with ΔT₅₀≧0° C. This combination mutant contains all 13 of the previously incorporated mutations plus T18P, G64A, S79P, V101I, S133R, D13E, and E53D. Individually, many of the less stabilizing mutations show improvements in activity; summing the changes in activity measured for these point mutations gives a net activity increase of 20.7 μM cellobiose equivalents. As such, that possibility that these less stabilizing mutations might boost thermostability while rescuing activity was tested. While the 20-point mutant shows a ΔT₅₀ of 16.8° C. (FIG. 19C), its activity at 60° C. decreases even further to 47.1 μM cellobiose equivalents below WT (22% of WT activity) (FIG. 19D). This result suggests that activity losses from individual mutations permanently accumulate and cannot be rescued by adding mutations that improve activity in isolation.

Although these initial combination mutants exhibit diminished activity, it was hypothesized that their enhanced thermostability might improve performance in longer assays. Due to its relatively modest decrease in activity, the 9-point mutant (construct 16 of Table V) was chosen for 60-hour activity tests on Avicel at 60 and 70° C. (FIGS. 19E, 19F). This construct demonstrates a nine-fold activity improvement over WT at the elevated temperature. When compared to WT hydrolysis at 60° C., the total product yield improves by about 134 μM of cellobiose equivalents (24% increase, 1.2 fold improvement).

Second Generation Combination Cel5a Endoglucanase Mutants.

Using the 9-point mutant as a template, a second-generation of combination mutants was constructed by excluding all mutations detrimentally affecting activity. The process involved reverting mutations N76P, S139P, K219Q, G239N, D271F, Y278F, and S309F back to the WT residue or, if available, a less stable, more active alternate. Mutations appearing in the four final second generation 13-point combination mutants (s13pt 1-4) are summarized in Table V.

The second-generation combination mutants performed as well or better than WT on all tested metrics. All four constructs show enhancements in thermostability with s13pt2 demonstrating the highest increase (ΔT₅₀=15.4° C.) (Table VI, FIGS. 20A, 20B, 20C, 20D). Activity at 60° C. improved over WT for all constructs except s13pt1 (FIG. 20C). In this case, activity declined slightly by 1.0 μM of cellobiose. The combination mutants exhibit dramatic improvements in T_(opt). In a two-hour activity test, s13pt1/2 and sl 3pt3/4 optimally function at 78 (ΔT_(opt)=14° C.) and 75 degrees (ΔT_(opt)=11° C.), respectively. Additionally, all of the mutants show ˜4-6 fold increases in expression level over WT.

To approximate industrial reactions, 60-hour hydrolysis experiments were conducted on the constructs with the highest activity (s13pt4) and thermostability (s13pt2). At 60° C., both combination mutants performed similarly to WT (FIG. 21A). This improvement dramatically increased at 70° C. (FIG. 21B). Compared to the WT performance at the same temperature, s13pt4 and s13pt2 exhibit ˜9.5-10 fold increases in activity. Moreover, the combination mutants improve yield by 358-414 μM cellobiose equivalents (˜60% increase) over the maximal amount possible using the WT enzyme.

As shown, these combination mutants optimally perform at 75-78° C. in the 2-hour hydrolysis experiments. A long-term hydrolysis was tested to see if these mutant enzymes improved at higher temperatures. However, after 60-hours of hydrolysis, less activity was observed at 75 and 78° C. than at 70° C. (FIGS. 21C, 21D).

Cel5a Plasmid Construction.

Cel5a mutants were constructed as described in Example 1.

Thermostability/Activity Screen.

Thermostability and activity screens were performed as described in Example 1.

The Park-Johnson Assay was performed as described in Example 1.

Enzyme Purification.

Cel5a proteins were cultured and purified as described in Example 1.

T50 Assay was performed as described in Example 1.

T_(opt) Assay.

Determination of the temperature yielding the maximum activity proceeded through incubating enzyme with Avicel for two hours at a gradient of temperatures, then determining sugar release with the Park-Johnson assay. In a 96-well PCR plate, 40 μL of purified enzyme were combined with 60 μL of 1.5% Avicel suspended in cellulase buffer (100 mL 50 mM sodium acetate, pH 5.0). Samples were incubated for 2 hours across a 20° C. gradient centered around a temperature projected to capture the peak of activity based on T₅₀ values. Activity was assessed from 25 μL of supernatant using the Park-Johnson assay.

Single-Point Activity Assay was performed as described in Example 1.

60-Hour Activity Assay.

To assess activity over a constant temperature for 60 hours, enzyme and substrate mixtures were combined in individual PCR tubes and frozen to arrest hydrolysis. In each tube, 40 μL of purified enzyme at a concentration of 0.5 μM was combined with 60 μL of 1.67% Avicel suspended in cellulase buffer (100 mL 50 mM sodium acetate, pH 5.0). Incubation occurred in a PCR block preheated before adding samples to prevent background activity. Time points were collected at 0, 4, 8, 16, 24, 36, 48, and 60 hours. Following hydrolysis, the reactions were thawed and moved to a 96-well plate to facilitate centrifugation. Supernatants were robotically collected. Cellobiose standards containing 0.0, 166.6, 333.3, 500.0, 833,3, 1000.0, 1500.0, and 2000.0 μM of cellobiose and 50 μL of the reaction supernatants were assessed for reducing sugar concentrations via the Nelson-Somogyi assay as described in Smogyi, 1952, J. Biol. Chem., 195: 19-23 and Nelson, 1944, J. Biol. Chem., 153: 375-379, the entire contents of both of which are herein incorporated by reference. All experiments were performed in triplicate.

Example 6 A Thermostable Cel5a Endoglucanase

Out of the point mutations identified in Examples 1-4, sixteen thermostabilizing mutations that did not compromise activity measured at 60° C. were combined into a single variant. If two suitable mutations occupied the same site, the more thermostabilizing of the two was selected. This combination HjCel5a mutant was termed: OptCel5a, which includes: T57N, E53D, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, F191V, T233V, G239E, V265T, D271Y, G293A, S309W, and S318P point mutations. The DNA sequence for OptCel5a is set forth in SEQ ID NO: 3.

OptCel5a was transformed into the BY4742 Δkre2 strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a glycosylation-deficient strain that secretes proteins that have similar glycosylation patterns to H. jecorina enzymes (Heinzelman et al. 2009, PNAS, 106:5610-5615, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference). When expressed and purified, OptCel5a has an optimal temperature of 81.1° C. when used to hydrolyze crystalline cellulose (Avicel) for 2 h (FIG. 22A). This makes OptCel5a more than 17° C. more thermostable than wild type HjCel5a, more than 7° C. more stable than the 110F chimera 110F (Example 4, FIG. 18A), and 6° C. more stable than s13pt4 (Example 5, FIGS. 20C, 20D).

The activity of OptCel5a and wild type HjCel5a was assayed over a 60 h hydrolysis at both 60° C. and 70° C. OptCel5a had highest activity at 70° C., hydrolyzing more than 1.5 times as much cellulose as HjCel5a at its optimal temperature of 60° C. (FIG. 22B). OptCel5a is therefore compatible with the previously engineered thermostable Cel6a and Cel7a, which both operate optimally at 70° C. in 60 h hydrolysis experiments (Wu and Arnold, 2013, Biotech. and Bioeng., 110:1874-1883, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference).

Plasmids and Strains.

The gene encoding wild type Cel5a (including its cellulose binding module) was synthesized with S. cerevisiae codon optimization (DNA 2.0). Plasmids were transformed into the BY4742 Δkre2 strain of yeast (BY4742; Mat a; his3D1; leu2D0; lys2D0; ura3D0; YDR483w::kanMX4) obtained from EUROSCARF.

Enzyme Purification.

Yeast colonies expressing Cel5a with C-terminal His₆ tag and was grown at 30° C.: first overnight in 5 mL SD-Ura medium, expanded into 50 mL SD-Ura (+50 μg/mL kanamycin) medium for 24 h, and then expanded into 1 L YPD (+50 μg/mL kanamycin) medium for an additional 48 h. Cultures were centrifuged at 4500 g for 20 min, and the supernatant was filtered with 0.2 mm PES filter unit from Nalgene. Protein was purified using 5 mL HisTrap columns (GE Healthcare). Purified cellulases were buffered-exchanged to 50 mM sodium acetate buffer pH 5.0 using Vivaspin 20 ultrafiltration spin tubes (GE Healthcare). Protein concentrations were determined using A₂₈₀, with extinction coefficients calculated using ProtParam on the ExPASy server (Gasteiger et al. 2005, supra).

Thermostability Measurements.

100 μL samples in 50 mM sodium acetate buffer, pH 5.0 containing 0.2 μM Cel5a and 1% (w/v) Avicel were incubated at a range of temperatures for 2 h in an Eppendorf Mastercycler. A modified Park-Johnson reducing sugar assay was used to measure activity (Park and Johnson, 1949, JBC, 181:149-151, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference). Briefly, reaction mixtures were spun at 1000 g for 5 min to remove Avicel. 50 μL of supernatant was removed and transferred to a mixture of 100 μL ferricyanide reagent (0.5 g/L K₃Fe(CN)₆, 34.84 g/L K₂HPO₄, pH 10.6) and 50 μL carbonate-cyanide reagent (5.3 g/L Na₂CO₃, 0.65 g/L KCN). The reaction was heated at 95° C. for 15 min in an Eppendorf Mastercycler, and then cooled on ice for 5 min 180 μL of the reaction was removed and mixed with 90 μL ferric iron solution (2.5 g/L FeCl₃, 10 g/L polyvinyl pyrrolidone, 2 N H₂SO₄). After 2 min, absorbance at 595 nm was taken, using solutions of 0 μM to 300 μM cellobiose as standards.

Cellulase Activity Measurements.

All cellulase activity measurements were conducted in 50 mM sodium acetate buffer, pH 5.0. Constant temperature was maintained using an Eppendorf Mastercycler. To determine activity-temperature profiles of Cel5a, samples containing 0.2 μM of purified Cel5a and 1% (w/v) Avicel were incubated at 60 and 70° C. for 60 h. After hydrolysis, reaction supernatants were sampled for reducing sugar concentrations via a modified Nelson-Somogyi assay (Green et al. 1989, Anal. Biochem., 182: 197-199, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference). Briefly, 50 μL of reaction solution was added to 40 μL carbonate-tartrate solution (144 g/L Na₂SO₄, 12 g/L potassium tartrate tetrahydrate, 24 g/L Na₂CO₃, 16 g/L NaHCO₃) and 10 μL copper solution (180 g/L Na₂SO₄, 20 g/L CuSO₄.5H₂O) and heated to 95° C. for 15 min in an Eppendorf Mastercycler. The reaction was placed on ice for 5 min and then mixed with 50 μL arsenomolybdate solution (50 g/L (NH₄)₂MoO₄, 1.5 N H₂SO₄, 6 g/L NaH₂AsO₄). After mixing, absorbance at 520 nm was read, using 0 to 2 mM cellobiose solutions as standards.

Cellulose hydrolysis to determine the activity of optimized engineered and wild type cellulase mixtures was carried out on 1%, 3%, and 5% Avicel at 60° C. and 70° C. Samples were taken at 0 h, 4 h, 8 h, 15 h, 24 h, 36 h, 48 h, and 60 h, and reducing sugar concentration was quantified as described above.

Data analysis.

Cellulase activity and thermostability data were plotted using Microsoft Excel. Synergy plots were made in Matlab (The Mathworks, Inc.), using the Ternplot package developed by Carl Sandrock.

Example 7 Synergy of Cel5a, Cel6a, and Cel7a Engineered Cellulases

To approximate and improve cellulase activity for industrial use, the cellobiohydrolases Cel6a and Cel7a and endoglucanase Cel5a mixtures of the wild type enzymes were compared with engineered-thermostable cellulase mixtures. The engineered-thermostable mixture includes OptCel5a (Example 6) as the Cel5a variant, 3C6P (SEQ ID NO: 4) as the Cel6a variant (Wu and Arnold, 2013, supra), and TS8 (SEQ ID NO: 5) as the Cel7a variant (Komor et al. 2012, supra). Each of these enzymes has an optimal activity at or greater than 70° C. when measured over 60 hours (h) on Avicel. The wild type mixture, Cel5a from H. jecorina, Cel6a from Humicola insolens, and Cel7a from Talaromyces emersonii are the most thermostable reported homologues of each enzyme. In some embodiments, variant Cel5a, Cel6a, and Cel7a homologues from other organisms may be used. As previously reported, the wild type cellulase mixture exhibits optimal activity at 60° C. over 60 h (Wu and Arnold, 2013, supra).

In these experiments, the total cellulase concentration remained fixed at 0.5 μM while the relative concentrations of each cellulase varied in steps of 0.1 μM. The resulting data were used to produce a ternary synergy diagram (Baker et al. 1998, Biotechnology for Fuels and Chemicals; Springer, pp. 395-403, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference). Reactions on Avicel were conducted over 60 h at 60° C. for wild type and 70° C. for the engineered enzymes, conditions consistent with previous synergy studies (Baker et al. 1998, supra; Meyer et al. 2009, J. of Cereal Science, 50:337-344, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference; Wu and Arnold 2013, supra) and realistic industrial conditions. As shown in FIGS. 23A, 23B, both enzyme mixtures exhibited substantial synergy, with the mixtures more active than any of the enzymes alone. The degree of synergy, obtained by dividing the activity of the mixture by the sum of the activities of the individual cellulases (Zhang and Lynd 2004, Biotech. and Bioeng., 88:797-824, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference), ranged from 1.0 to 1.6 for the wild type enzymes, and from 1.0 to 2.1 for the engineered enzymes.

In both wild type and engineered mixtures, the highest cellulose hydrolysis activity occurred with relatively small amounts of endoglucanase (10-20% of total mixture), a finding observed in other synergy studies (Van Dyk and Pletschke 2012, Biotechnol. Advances, 30: 1458-1480, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference). Cellobiohydrolases processively hydrolyze along free cellulose ends, and are responsible for the bulk of hydrolysis. Endoglucanases non-processively produce free cellulose ends, increasing the effective concentration of cellobiohydrolase substrate. Less endoglucanase is required in an optimal mixture because the enzyme assists cellobiohydrolase function.

Wild type mixtures demonstrating the highest levels of hydrolysis contained mostly Cel7a, while Cel6a was the primary component of the most effective engineered mixtures. As shown in FIGS. 23C, 23D, this change in the optimal relative enzyme loadings reflects the relative activities of Cel6a and Cel7a in the wild type and engineered cases as disclosed (Wu and Arnold 2013, supra). FIGS. 23C, 23D also show the activities of the optimal cellulase mixtures for two and three enzymes. The mixture of wild type enzymes having the most enzymatic activity in this experiment exhibited more than 1.5 fold the activity of any of its constituent enzymes, while the mixture of engineered thermostable enzymes was over 2.5 fold as active. The engineered thermostable mixture also exhibited 1.2 times the activity of a mixture containing only engineered Cel6a and Cel7a with an equal total enzyme concentration.

An Optimized Mixture of Engineered Cellulases Accelerates Cellulose Hydrolysis.

The region of maximum activity was analyzed more closely in steps of 0.04 μM and the optimal (i.e., having the highest enzymatic activity) mixture for wild type was determined to be 0.16:0.28:0.56 (Cel5a:Cel6a:Cel7a). The optimal engineered thermostable mixture was determined to be 0.08:0.56:0.36 (Cel5a:Cel6a:Cel7a). The engineered thermostable mixture having the most enzymatic activity was termed T-PRIMED. The activity of T-PRIMED was assayed over 60 h at both 60° C. and 70° C. and was compared to the activity of the most active wild type mixture. This assay as performed using 1%, 3%, and 5% Avicel to observe the effects of varying cellulose concentrations (FIGS. 24A, 24B, 24C). T-PRIMED exhibits the most activity at 70° C., where it is approximately three times as active as the most active mixture of wild type enzymes at 60° C. The activities of all cellulase mixtures increased at higher cellulose concentrations, with the activity ratios remaining approximately the same.

The activity of the mixtures was also tested on two industrially relevant lignocellulose substrates: milled corn stover and dilute acid-treated rice straw (FIG. 23D). T-PRIMED was more active than the wild type enzymes on both substrates, with 1.8 fold the activity of the wild type mixture on milled corn stover and 2.5 fold on treated rice straw.

Plasmids and Strains.

Genes encoding Cel6a, and Cel7a were cloned into the yeast secretion vector YEp352/PGK91-1-αss as described previously (Komor et al. 2012, supra; Wu and Arnold 2013, supra). The gene encoding wild type Cel5a (including its cellulose binding module) was synthesized with S. cerevisiae codon optimization (DNA 2.0). Sequences of all genes are in Supplementary Information. Plasmids were transformed into the BY4742 Δkre2 strain of yeast (BY4742; Mat a; his3D1; leu2D0; lys2D0; ura3D0; YDR483w::kanMX4) obtained from EUROSCARF.

Enzyme Purification.

Yeast colonies expressing Cel5a and Cel6a with C-terminal His₆ tags and Cel7a with an N-terminal His₈ tag were grown at 30° C.: first overnight in 5 mL SD-Ura medium, expanded into 50 mL SD-Ura (+50 μg/mL kanamycin) medium for 24 h, and then expanded into 1 L YPD (+50 μg/mL kanamycin) medium for an additional 48 h. Cultures were centrifuged at 4500 g for 20 min, and the supernatant was filtered with 0.2 mm PES filter unit from Nalgene. Protein was purified using 5 mL HisTrap columns (GE Healthcare). Purified cellulases were buffered-exchanged to 50 mM sodium acetate buffer pH 5.0 using Vivaspin 20 ultrafiltration spin tubes (GE Healthcare). Protein concentrations were determined using A₂₈₀, with extinction coefficients calculated using ProtParam on the ExPASy server (Gasteiger et al. 2005, supra).

Thermostability Measurements.

100 μL samples in 50 mM sodium acetate buffer, pH 5.0 containing 0.2 μM Cel5a and 1% (w/v) Avicel were incubated at a range of temperatures for 2 h in an Eppendorf Mastercycler. A modified Park-Johnson reducing sugar assay was used to measure activity (Park and Johnson 1949, supra). Briefly, reaction mixtures were spun at 1000 g for 5 min to remove Avicel. 50 μL of supernatant was removed and transferred to a mixture of 100 μL ferricyanide reagent (0.5 g/L K₃Fe(CN)₆, 34.84 g/L K₂HPO₄, pH 10.6) and 50 μL carbonate-cyanide reagent (5.3 g/L Na₂CO₃, 0.65 g/L KCN). The reaction was heated at 95° C. for 15 min in an Eppendorf Mastercycler, and then cooled on ice for 5 min 180 μL of the reaction was removed and mixed with 90 μL ferric iron solution (2.5 g/L FeCl₃, 10 g/L polyvinyl pyrrolidone, 2 N H₂SO₄). After 2 min, absorbance at 595 nm was taken, using solutions of 0 μM to 300 cellobiose as standards.

Cellulase Activity Measurements.

All cellulase activity measurements were conducted in 50 mM sodium acetate buffer, pH 5.0. Constant temperature was maintained using an Eppendorf Mastercycler. To determine activity-temperature profiles of Cel5a, samples containing 0.2 μM of purified Cel5a and 1% (w/v) Avicel were incubated at 60 and 70° C. for 60 h. To determine the activity of the Cel5a, Cel6a, and Cel7a mixtures, purified Cel5a, Cel6a, and Cel7a were combined at different ratios to a final concentration of 0.5 μM along, with 1% Avicel in 100 μL and incubated 60° C. and 70° C. for 60 h. After hydrolysis, reaction supernatants were sampled for reducing sugar concentrations via a modified Nelson-Somogyi assay (Green et al. 1989, supra).

Briefly, 50 μL of reaction solution was added to 40 μL carbonate-tartrate solution (144 g/L Na₂SO₄, 12 g/L potassium tartrate tetrahydrate, 24 g/L Na₂CO₃, 16 g/L NaHCO₃) and 10 μL copper solution (180 g/L Na₂SO₄, 20 g/L CuSO₄.5H₂O) and heated to 95° C. for 15 min in an Eppendorf Mastercycler. The reaction was placed on ice for 5 min and then mixed with 50 μL arsenomolybdate solution (50 g/L (NH₄)₂MoO₄, 1.5 N H₂SO₄, 6 g/L NaH₂AsO₄). After mixing, absorbance at 520 nm was read, using 0 to 2 mM cellobiose solutions as standards.

Cellulose hydrolysis to determine the activity of optimized engineered and wild type cellulase mixtures was carried out on 1%, 3%, and 5% Avicel at 60° C. and 70° C. Samples were taken at 0 h, 4 h, 8 h, 15 h, 24 h, 36 h, 48 h, and 60 h, and reducing sugar concentration was quantified as above.

Pre-treated lignocellulose from corn stover was obtained from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in Golden, Colo. Pre-treated lignocellulose from rice straw was prepared as described by Hsu et al. 2010, Bioresource Technology, 101: 4907-4913, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference. Activity assays were carried out for optimized engineered and wild type cellulase mixtures on 3% substrate at 60° C. and 70° C. for 60 h. Released cellobiose at the end of 60 h was quantified as above.

Data Analysis.

Cellulase activity and thermostability data were plotted using Microsoft Excel. Synergy plots were made in Matlab (The Mathworks, Inc.), using the Ternplot package developed by C. Sandrock.

As disclosed throughout as evidenced by, for example, the cellulase activity of a variant Cel5a shown in FIGS. 22A, 22B, a variant Cel5a enzyme has improved thermostability and activity compared to wild type. Additionally, as evidenced by FIGS. 23D, 24A, 24B, 24C, and 24D, a composition including a variant Cel5a enzyme, and variant Cel6a and variant Cel7a cellobiohydrolases has improved thermostability and activity compared to wild type.

While the present invention has been illustrated and described with reference to certain exemplary embodiments, those of ordinary skill in the art will understand that various modifications and changes may be made to the described embodiments without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention, as defined in the following claims. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A composition, comprising: a variant Cel5a endoglucanase having a temperature at which half of the maximal protein activity remains (T₅₀) that is higher than a T₅₀ of wild type Cel5a endoglucanase and increased enzymatic activity relative to wild type Cel5a endoglucanase; and a cellobiohydrolase selected from the group consisting of Cel6a, Cel7a, and combinations thereof.
 2. The composition of claim 1, wherein the variant Cel5a endoglucanase has a T₅₀ above 70° C.
 3. The composition of claim 1, wherein the variant Cel5a endoglucanase has a T₅₀ of about 1° C. to about 17° C. above the T₅₀ of the wild type Cel5a.
 4. The composition of claim 1, wherein the increase in enzymatic activity is a net activity increase in amount of digested cellulose relative to the wild type.
 5. The composition of claim 4, wherein the enzymatic activity is measured using a cellobiose activity assay.
 6. The composition of claim 1, wherein the variant Cel5a endoglucanase comprises a single point mutation in the Cel5a amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N153D, N155E, T156E, G189S, F191V, T233V, G239E, V265T, D271Y, G293A, S309W/L, and S318P/Q/E.
 7. The composition of claim 1, wherein the variant Cel5a endoglucanase comprises a combination of point mutations in the Cel5a amino acid sequence, the combination of point mutations being selected from the group of combinations consisting of: G189A, F191V, G239D, S242A, V265T D271Y, S318P/E, and S322A; E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309L, and S318P; E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309W, and S318P; E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309L, and S318E; E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309W, and S318E; and E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, F191V, T233V, G239E, V265T, D271Y, G293A, S309W, and S318P.
 8. The composition of claim 1, wherein the Cel6a is variant 3C6P or a homologue thereof and the Cel7a is variant TS8 or a homologue thereof.
 9. A composition, comprising: a variant Cel5a endoglucanase having a temperature at which half of the maximal protein activity remains (T₅₀) that is higher than a T₅₀ of wild type Cel5a endoglucanase and increased enzymatic activity relative to wild type Cel5a endoglucanase, the variant Cel5a endoglucanase having a mutation selected from the group consisting of: E53D; T57N; S79P; T80E; V101I; S133R; N153D; N155E; T156E; G189S; F191V; T233V; G239E; V265T; D271Y; G293A; S309W/L; S318P/Q/E; G189A, F191V, G239D, S242A, V265T, D271Y, S318P/E, and S322A; E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309L, and S318P; E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309W, and S318P; E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309L, and S318E; E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, G239E, D271Y, G293A, S309W, and S318E; and E53D, T57N, S79P, T80E, V101I, S133R, N155E, G189S, F191V, T233V, G239E, V265T, D271Y, G293A, S309W, and S318P; and a cellobiohydrolase selected from the group consisting of Cel6a, Cel7a, and combinations thereof.
 10. The composition of claim 9, wherein the Cel6a is variant 3C6P or homologues thereof and the Cel7a is variant TS8 or homologues thereof.
 11. A method of hydrolyzing cellulose, comprising hydrolyzing the cellulose with the composition of claim
 1. 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the hydrolyzing occurs at a temperature of about 60° C. to about 70° C. 